Hazard Risk Reduction

SEEA EA

Name Used: Flood Control Services

Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services

Definition: see Coastal Protection Services and River Flood Mitigation Services

See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics.

Name Used: Coastal Protection Services

Definition: The ecosystem contributions of linear elements in the seascape, for instance coral reefs, sand banks, dunes or mangrove ecosystems along the shore, in protecting the shore and thus mitigating the impacts of tidal surges or storms on local communities. This is a final ecosystem service.

Name Used: River Flood Mitigation Services

Definition: The ecosystem contributions of riparian vegetation which provides structure and a physical barrier to high water levels and thus mitigates the impacts of floods on local communities. River flood mitigation services will be supplied together with peak flow mitigation services in providing the benefit of flood protection. This is a final ecosystem service.

Name Used: Storm Mitigation Services

Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services

Definition: The ecosystem contributions of vegetation including linear elements, in mitigating the impacts of wind, sand and other storms (other than water related events) on local communities. This is a final ecosystem service.

See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics.

Name Used: Noise attenuation services

Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services

Definition: Noise attenuation services are the ecosystem contributions to the reduction in the impact of noise on people that mitigates its harmful or stressful effects. This is most commonly a final ecosystem service.

See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics.

Name Used: Solid waste remediation services

Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services

Definition: Solid waste remediation services are the ecosystem contributions to the transformation of organic or inorganic substances, through the action of micro-organisms, algae, plants and animals that mitigates their harmful effects. This is may be recorded as a final or intermediate service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics.

CICES

Name Used: Regulation of Baseline Flows & Extreme Events

Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance

Definition: Regulation of Baseline Flows and Extreme Events refers to the ecosystem's role in controlling various environmental dynamics and reducing associated risks. This encompasses control of erosion rates, buffering and attenuation of mass movement, hydrological cycle and water flow regulation, as well as storm and fire protection—all of which are measured by metrics like risk reduction and the area protected. Additionally, the regulation extends to the management of mass, liquid, and gaseous flows, quantified by their respective types and amounts. Together, these functions contribute to the stability and resilience of ecosystems against both regular and extreme environmental events.

Economic Value Calculated: No

Valuation Methods: n/a

Metrics: included in definition

Name Used: Mediation of Nuisances of Anthropogenic Origin

Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance

Definition: Mediation of Nuisances of Anthropogenic Origin encompasses the natural mechanisms that mitigate nuisances caused by human activities. This includes smell reduction, noise attenuation, and visual screening, each regulated by different types of living systems such as specific plant or animal communities. These functions are measured by the type of living system involved in the mediation process. Additionally, the category includes abiotic structures or processes that also serve to mitigate nuisances, quantified by their types and amounts. Together, these biotic and abiotic elements work to alleviate the impact of human-generated nuisances on the environment and improve the quality of life.

Economic Value Calculated: No

Valuation Methods: n/a

Metrics: included in definition

Name Used: Mediation Of Wastes or Toxic Substances of Anthropogenic Origin by Living Processes

Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance

Definition: Mediation of Wastes or Toxic Substances of Anthropogenic Origin by Living Processes encompasses the biological mechanisms that neutralize or manage human-generated waste and toxins. This includes bio-remediation, where micro-organisms, algae, plants, and animals are involved in breaking down waste, measured by the type of living system or waste involved; as well as filtration, sequestration, storage, and accumulation processes that effectively isolate or transform waste and toxins, quantified by the type of living system or the type of water or substance involved. These natural mechanisms serve as an ecological buffer against environmental degradation caused by human activities.

Economic Value Calculated: No

Valuation Methods: n/a

Metrics: included in definition

ESVD 2020

Name Used: Moderation of extreme events

Service Category: Regulating

Definition: Moderation of extreme events as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Storm protection, Flood prevention, Fire Prevention, Prevention of extreme events (unspecified).

Economic Value Calculated: Yes

Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 116 specific to moderation of extreme events. See the Valuation Methods Appendix.

Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics.

FEMA ESV 2022

Name Used: Hazard Risk Reduction

Service Category: Regulating

Definition: Preventing and mitigating natural hazards such as floods, hurricanes, fires, and droughts

Economic Value Calculated: Yes

Valuation Methods: Avoided Cost, Alternative Cost, Meta-Analysis

Metrics:

Forest: McPherson and colleagues conducted multiple studies to assess the benefits of urban trees and small forests in stormwater flood mitigation, covering locations like Modesto and other cities in California. The original findings were reported in yearly values per city and in varying years' USD. These were then standardized by dividing by the total acreage of tree cover and converted to 2021 USD/acre/year. Wilson (2008) also evaluated the flood hazard reduction benefits of forests at a landscape scale using CITYgreen software. The original findings were in 2005 Canadian dollars per hectare per year and were likewise converted to 2021 USD/acre/year.

Coastal Wetland: Sun and Carson (2020) studied the economic impact of tropical storms on U.S. coastal areas, focusing on the role of wetlands in reducing storm hazard risks. The study covered 237 coastal counties and presented median values in 2016 USD/sq km/year, which were then converted and inflated to 2021 USD/acre/year. To derive a U.S.-specific valuation for wetlands, a function transfer method was applied, drawing from multiple meta-analyses including Adusumilli (2015), Brander et al. (2006), Ghermandi et al. (2010), and Woodward & Wui (2001). Specific variables were set to highlight the role of coastal wetlands and their contribution to flood or storm hazard risk reduction. Income per capita, wetland size, and GDP per capita were among the variables adapted to U.S. specific data. All these values were eventually converted to 2021 USD per acre per year.

Inland Wetlands: A function transfer method was used to tailor U.S.-specific wetland values based on meta-analyses by Adusumilli (2015), Brander et al. (2006), Ghermandi et al. (2010), and Woodward & Wui (2001). The focus was on freshwater or inland wetlands and their role in flood and storm hazard risk reduction. Variables like income per capita, wetland size, and GDP per capita were set to U.S. specific metrics. The "publish" variable for the Woodward and Wui (2001) study was set to 1, ensuring the results were based on published values. All the dependent variables, initially in various units and years, were standardized to 2021 USD per acre per year.

Urban Green Open Space: The Trust for Public Land employed avoided cost methodology to assess the economic value of urban parks and open spaces in mitigating stormwater runoff. Using a model developed by the Western Research Station of the U.S. Forest Service, these studies leveraged geospatial land cover data and U.S. weather data on rainfall. The goal was to compare the water retention capacity of current land use versus that of a fully developed reference area. By correlating this information with water treatment data, the studies estimated cost-savings for city governments in terms of stormwater management.

Riparian: Rein (1999) analyzed the role of riparian buffers along rivers as temporary flood storage areas, particularly focusing on the Pajaro River near Elkhorn Slough. Using economic data from flood events in 1995 and 1998, Rein calculated the avoided future flood costs that could be achieved through installing these buffers. Similarly, Kousky & Walls (2013) used Hazus flood modeling software to estimate the avoided flood damages due to the conservation of riparian lands. Watson et al. (2016) went further by mapping flood extents for 10 real-life flood events and computing the damages that upstream riparian areas could potentially mitigate.

Coral Reefs: The study by Storlazzi et al. (2019) provided a comprehensive U.S.-wide estimate for the value of coral reefs in reducing storm hazard risks. The study was unique in its rigor, covering all U.S. areas and territories with associated coral reefs. The authors used high-resolution spatial and hydrodynamic modeling techniques similar to those employed by FEMA. Notably, the study considered both the value of at-risk infrastructure and the potential impacts to local economic activities, a factor often omitted in green infrastructure valuation. The methodology combined engineering, ecologic, geospatial, and economic modeling to quantify the coastal protection benefits of coral reefs across the U.S. and its territories.

IPBES NCP

Name Used: Regulation of hazards and extreme events

Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes)

Definition: Regulation, by ecosystems, of the frequency, magnitude or impacts on people, of extreme events. This includes storms, floods, landslides, avalanches, forest fires, heatwaves, and disease outbreaks. Ecosystems play roles in reducing vulnerabilities, buffering impacts or facilitating recovery after an event.

Economic Value Calculated: No

Valuation Methods: n/a

Metrics: Risk reduction by ecosystems, Extent of natural barriers

ENCORE

Name Used: Flood and storm protection

Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance

Definition: Provided by the sheltering, buffering, and attenuating effects of natural and planted vegetation.

Economic Value Calculated: No

Valuation Methods: Reduction of damages, avoided costs, and avoided sediment pollution

Metrics:

Name Used: Mediation of sensory impacts

Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance

Definition: Vegetation is the main (natural) barrier used to reduce noise and light pollution, limiting the impact it can have on human health and the environment.

Economic Value Calculated: No

Valuation Methods:

Metrics:

TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services

Uses SEEA EA

InVEST

Name Used: Coastal Vulnerability

Service Category: Erosion and Flooding Risk Mitigation

Definition: The model uses geophysical and natural habitat features to estimate coastal exposure to erosion and flooding caused by severe weather. It ranks sites based on their relative risk and can be overlaid with population data to identify human vulnerability.

Economic Value Calculated: No

Valuation Methods: N/A

Metrics: Vulnerability index, summaries of human population density in proximity to the coastline, exposure index rank for coastline segments.

Name Used: Flood Risk Mitigation

Service Category: Flood Risk Mitigation

Definition: This model focuses on the role of natural infrastructure in mitigating stormwater (or urban) flooding. It calculates runoff reduction per pixel compared to storm volume, as well as the potential economic damage within each watershed by overlaying flood extent potential and built infrastructure.

Economic Value Calculated: Yes

Valuation Methods: Potential economic damage calculated by overlaying flood extent potential and built infrastructure.

Metrics: Runoff reduction per pixel, potential economic damage for each watershed.

Name Used: Urban Cooling

Service Category: Urban Heat Mitigation

Definition: Estimates the heat mitigation effects of vegetation in urban areas based on factors like shade, evapotranspiration, and albedo. The model calculates an index of heat mitigation and uses it to estimate temperature reduction due to vegetation. It also assesses the value of this service through energy consumption and work productivity.

Economic Value Calculated: Yes

Valuation Methods: Energy consumption and work productivity

Metrics: Index of heat mitigation based on shade, evapotranspiration, albedo, and distance from cooling islands like parks; climate data, land use/land cover data, and optional A/C use data.

Swiss Re BES Index

Name Used: Coastal Protection

Service Category: Regulating Service

Definition: The role of coastal habitats in mitigating the impacts of flooding and erosion.

Economic Value Calculated: No

Valuation Methods: n/a

Metrics: Coastal Risk Reduction (%) as an indicator. Difference in coastal risk with and without the coastal habitats present.