# The BASIN Field Manual ### BASIN makes nature and the benefits it provides to all beings investable. The **BASIN Field Manual** is the central reference to all that is BASIN. It is our expression of the intertwined, entangled **relational value** of the natural systems we inhabit**.** Herein lies what we hope will be a compass, or at least a map, for the path ahead. *** ## Rules? ***If*** BASIN had rules they would be: ### Embrace Complexity Complex is not the same as complicated. Biodiversity, climate, carbon, water, nature, and beyond — economics, finance, politics, law, art, health, wealth, and **well-being** — are all interconnected. ### Stocks & Flows Ecological economics and ecosystem accounting are based on the principles of stocks and flows. This aptly mirrors nature's basins that store and circulate life-sustaining water. BASIN's model is crafted on this very essence— protecting and stewarding the stocks and flows of Nature's Intrinsic Value. ### Stacking v. Bundling Stacking splits a place into parts (food, fiber, water, carbon, biodiversity, etc); bundling values the whole. We favor bundling—one instrument, no overlap, holistic valuation. We issue on value, price on cost and let the market close the gap to fund natural asset ensurance. *** > “***When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the universe.***” > > -John Muir, My First Summer in the Sierra, 1911 # The Intrinsic Value of Nature *Ohenton Kariwatehkwen. Whakapapa. Ubuntu. Buen Vivir. Djalkiri. Ngurra. Satoyama. Sila.* Beliefs are not limited by space or time. The intrinsic value of nature is a universal principle [across diverse cultures](/appendix/value-types-and-valuation-methods/types-of-value/values-across-cultures), emphasizing the deep interconnections among all living beings, the land, and the spiritual world. Intrinsic value expresses harmony, respect, and mutual care that nurtures both community and the greater ecology of which we are a part. *** ## Acknowledgment Despite the analytical and categorical minutia of BASIN's work, **we recognize the intrinsic value of nature as priceless and unquantifiable both to humans and non-humans**. However, treating many of the benefits Nature provides as "price-less" is the cause of the interconnected [climate-biodiversity-social](/dossier/manifesto) crisis. It is our view, that in order to protect the intrinsic value of nature from further degradation we must utilize instrumental values as a relational value. As we, as a society, do this, [nature's fractal patterns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Fry_Richardson#Research_on_the_length_of_coastlines_and_borders) will become clearer, showing us the true value of nature, making ecosystem and environmental accounting a temporary, yet necessary, step. # What You Seek After all of our own [seeking](/appendix/glossary), it would be easy to say that what we are after is [sustainable well-being](https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003173717/addicted-growth-robert-costanza) or [inclusive wealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusive_wealth). But, it seems, there is something more to this. Maybe what we are after is regenerative wealth? ## Regenerative Wealth Sustainability focuses on maintaining and preserving our current conditions to prevent future harm. **Regenerative**, however, take a proactive step further by actively enhancing and revitalizing systems, aiming to boost their health and vitality. Historically, "**wealth**" signified well-being, health, happiness, prosperity, and preservation. Financial gains were considered a secondary outcome. For us, real wealth is embodied by flourishing ecological systems, inherently encompassing human health and well-being. Ah, yes, that’s what we are after: **Regenerative Wealth**. *** > "***What you seek, is seeking you.***" > > -Rumi, 13th Century # Nature's Core Benefits Ecological economics converge on 19 core benefits that nature provides, representing a unified understanding across diverse scientific inquiries into nature's invaluable contributions to people and the planet. {% hint style="success" %} The concept of Nature's Core Benefits are derived from our comprehensive evaluation of over 50 ecological frameworks, meticulously detailed in the [Appendix](/appendix/ecosystem-services-classification). {% endhint %}

Nature's Core Benefits

# Core Benefits Framework The Core Benefits Framework extends Nature's Core Benefits by incorporating ecosystem and land cover classifications, alongside the tangible dimension of real assets, to render natural capital investable. ## Ecological Stocks & Flows The benefits nature provides are commonly referred to as environmental assets which are comprised of stocks and flows. Ecosystem services are the "flows" and ecosystem assets are the "stocks" of those benefits. The valuation of these stocks and flows is paramount for ecosystem protection and restoration. Serving as the basis for proper valuation, we conducted an exhaustive review of over 120 Ecosystem Services, Natural Capital, Land Cover, and Real Assets classification and valuation frameworks. {% hint style="warning" %} Real assets in a nature framework? It's strategic. In a world of rules, we turn legal 'limitations' [into tools](https://dispatches.basin.global/the-tools-we-have) for sustainable impact. Laws aren't barriers; they're opportunities. {% endhint %} The Core Benefits Framework identifies 15 "stocks" of ecosystems and 21 "flows" of ecological benefits.
Ecosystem STOCKSCore Benefits FLOWS
Cultivated & DevelopedRaw Materials
Urban Open SpaceFood
Rural Open SpaceEnergy
Rivers & LakesWater Abundance
Inland WetlandsHealthy Soils
Tropical ForestsMedicinal & Genetic
Temperate ForestsClimate Stability
Boreal ForestsClean Air
Coastal SystemsClean Water
GrasslandsRisk Resilience
ShrublandsPollination
Tropical ForestsErosion Control
DesertPest & Disease Control
SubterraneanHabitat
Marine SystemsRecreation & Experiences
Research & Learning
Aesthetic & Sensory
Art & Inspiration
Existence & Legacy
Land Utilization
Resource Utilization
*** {% hint style="info" %} Detailed methodology available in the [Appendix](/appendix/glossary) {% endhint %} # STOCKS: Ecosystems The Core Benefits Framework identifies 15 "stocks" of ecosystems that are consistent across the reviewed frameworks. ## Ecosystems
Cultivated & DevelopedBoreal Forests
Urban Open SpaceCoastal Systems
Rural Open SpaceGrasslands
Rivers & LakesShrublands
Inland WetlandsPolar & Alpine
Tropical ForestsDesert
Temperate ForestsSubterranean
Marine Systems
*** {% hint style="info" %} Supporting materials, scope and methodological notes are found in the [Land Cover Classification & Ecosystem Typologies](/appendix/land-cover-classification-and-ecosystem-typologies) Appendix {% endhint %} # Ecosystem Definitions These 15 definitions standardize and unify the language across [different frameworks](/appendix/land-cover-classification-and-ecosystem-typologies) to facilitate investment in ecosystem restoration and conservation as part of the BASIN Protocol. ## Cultivated & Developed Cultivated & Developed areas include agricultural lands and urbanized areas significantly altered by human activities. These spaces are crucial for food production and human habitation but often have reduced biodiversity compared to natural ecosystems. ## Urban Open Space Urban Open Spaces are vegetated areas in urban settings, where at least 80% of the land is covered by vegetation and less than 20% is impervious surface. ## Rural Open Space Rural Open Spaces are vegetated areas in rural settings, characterized by at least 80% vegetation cover and less than 20% impervious surfaces. ## Rivers & Lakes Bodies of freshwater that serve as a crucial element in regional and global water cycles. They provide habitat for a wide range of species and are a resource for human activities such as fishing, transportation, and recreation. ## Inland Wetlands Inland wetlands are ecosystems where the soil is periodically saturated or covered by water. They include swamps, marshes, peatlands, bogs, floodplains, and wetlands dependent on groundwater. ## Tropical Forests Forests located in equatorial regions, typically characterized by high biodiversity and closed tree canopies generally taller than 5 meters, comprising more than 20% of the vegetation. These forests maintain a year-round warm climate and high humidity, supporting a wide array of species. ## Temperate Forests Forests in regions with distinct seasons, ranging from deciduous to evergreen types, found across both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. These ecosystems experience varied temperature and precipitation patterns, hosting diverse flora and fauna adapted to seasonal changes. ## Boreal Forests Also referred to as Taiga, Boreal Forests are found in high northern latitudes, known for long, cold winters and short summers. Dominated by spruce, fir, and pine, they feature a sparse understory and are significant for carbon storage, habitat provision, and their extensive coverage, underscoring their importance in the global climate system. ## Coastal Systems Coastal Systems encompass coastal and transitional habitats including tidal wetlands, beaches, and dunes. While estuaries are represented within multiple ecosystems, shellfish reefs, coral reefs, and deepwater habitats are excluded due to their categorization under the Marine scope. ## Grasslands Grasslands are ecosystems dominated by grasses. These areas can be naturally occurring or semi-natural and are not intensely managed, although they can be utilized for grazing. ## Shrublands Shrublands are ecosystems dominated by shrubs and typically have limited soil fertility. ## Polar & Alpine Polar & Alpine ecosystems include tundra, polar regions, and high-elevation mountain systems. ## Deserts Deserts are ecosystems characterized by low rainfall, extremes of temperature, and desiccating winds. ## Subterranean Subterranean ecosystems encompass a range of underground habitats, both natural and human-made. ## Marine Systems **Marine** ecosystems encompass ocean waters and seafloor beyond coastal transitional zones, including continental shelf, pelagic, and deep-sea environments. These ecosystems are structured by gradients in light, pressure, temperature, and nutrients, supporting diverse communities from coral reefs and kelp forests to abyssal plains. They provide critical habitat for marine biodiversity and regulate global climate. # FLOWS: Core Benefits The Core Benefits Framework identifies 21 ecological benefits that are consistent across the reviewed frameworks: 19 cornerstone ecosystem services and two foundational real asset benefits.
Ecosystem Services Core BenefitsReal Asset Core Benefits
Raw MaterialsLand Utilization
FoodResource Utilization
Energy
Water Abundance
Healthy Soils
Medicinal & Genetic
Climate Stability
Clean Air
Clean Water
Risk Resilience
Pollination
Erosion Control
Pest & Disease Control
Habitat
Recreation & Experiences
Research & Learning
Aesthetic & Sensory
Art & Inspiration
Existence & Legacy
*** {% hint style="info" %} Supporting materials, scope and methodological notes are found in the [Ecosystem Services ](/appendix/ecosystem-services-classification)and [Real Assets](/appendix/real-asset-classification-and-real-property-considerations) Appendices {% endhint %} # Core Benefits Definitions These 21 definitions standardize the ecosystem services & real asset benefits and unifies the language across the [different frameworks](/appendix/glossary). This standardization facilitates natural capital investment as part of the BASIN Protocol. ## Raw Materials Raw materials encompass a diverse range of provisioning services that offer essential contributions to human society and various industries. These materials include but are not limited to fibers, timber, fuelwood, charcoal, fodder, and minerals. They also extend to cultivated and wild biomass for energy, nutritional, and material purposes, as well as water resources. Sub-categories involve the ecosystem contributions to the growth of cultivated plants, grazed biomass, and livestock for uses like food, fiber, and energy production. Aquatic resources are also integral, whether cultivated or naturally occurring, and serve multiple roles from providing food to material extraction and energy production. Measurement metrics often include economic value calculations, categorized in terms of amount, type, and source, among other qualitative and quantitative metrics. Overall, raw materials serve as an essential flow from Real Assets, contributing to diverse human needs and various industries. ## Food Food Provisioning encompasses the production and cultivation of a wide range of edibles, from crops, fish, game, and fruits to specialized categories like Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). This service category extends to both terrestrial and aquatic environments, covering wild, managed, and domesticated organisms. Applications include not just nutritional consumption but also material and energy uses, featuring products like beef, poultry, dairy, and feed for domesticated animals or aquaculture. Valuation methods vary from Avoided Cost and Market Price to more specialized estimates that consider factors like crop yield and nutrient value. Metrics used for assessment include cost avoidance value, $/ha/yr, and specific type and amount metrics for the organisms and materials involved. Whether sourced from real assets or biomass provisioning services, food provisioning plays a multifaceted role in human society and various industries, measured and valued through a range of qualitative and quantitative metrics. Overall, food serves as an essential flow from Real Assets, contributing to diverse human needs but also the needs of other living beings. ## Energy Energy, predominantly a Provisioning service, encompasses a multi-faceted role in providing fuel, fiber, fertilizer, and minerals. This spans from the production of biomass-based fuels like biofuel crops, animal waste, fuelwood, and agricultural residue pellets, to energy harvested from renewable sources such as offshore wind, reservoir hydropower, and ocean waves. The sector also includes the physical labor provided by domesticated or commercial species for mechanical energy. Metrics for evaluating these services range from the extent of agricultural and forested land for bioenergy production to net present value and levelized cost for renewable energy sources. In some frameworks, energy services also include the intentional and in-situ cultivation of both terrestrial and aquatic plants and animals for energy production, each quantified by type and amount. Surface and ground water are also key resources used for energy generation, measured by their amount, type, and source. Some frameworks include oil and gas and other non-renewable energy sources in this category while others specifically exclude due to the negative impact finite non-renewable resources have on natural capital and ecosystem services. Overall, energy serves as an essential flow from Real Assets, contributing to diverse human needs and various industries. ## Water Abundance Water Abundance is comprised of the water supply and water storage, collectively Water Security, that ecosystems provide for both human and non-human needs. Water security encompasses both provisioning and regulating services essential for managing water flows and ensuring adequate availability across various uses. This integrated service regulates the rate of water flow through environments, providing long-term reserves in lakes, ponds, aquifers, and soil moisture, and also maintains baseline and peak flow conditions. It plays versatile roles, from supporting household consumption, industrial activities, and irrigation to mitigating risks of floods and other extreme water-related events. Additionally, it contributes to energy generation through reservoir hydropower and to urban water management through stormwater retention. Economic value metrics span avoided cost, replacement cost, market value, and net present value, considering both quantitative and qualitative measures such as annual average water yield, energy production, and water quality benefits. ## Soil Health Soil formation and quality encompass a suite of regulating and maintenance services vital to the health and stability of both ecological and human systems. These services include the accumulation and deposition of soils through plant matter decomposition, sediment deposition, and nutrient cycling, which collectively contribute to agricultural and ecosystem integrity. Soil also plays a critical role in the bioremediation of waste, soil and sediment retention, and landslide mitigation, primarily through the stabilizing effects of vegetation. Additionally, weathering processes help maintain the bio-geochemical conditions of soil, while decomposition and fixing processes enable nitrogen fixing, nitrification, and mineralization of dead organic material. These ecosystem contributions serve not only to enhance soil fertility and structure but also to protect against erosion, salinization, and other forms of degradation, thereby influencing soil's suitability for various functions like plant growth, water filtration, and human infrastructure. Metrics commonly used to assess these services range from economic valuation methods to qualitative and quantitative measures like soil erosion rate and soil organic carbon stocks. ## Medicinal & Genetic Medicinal and Genetic ecosystem services provide a range of provisioning and habitat services that are vital for both health and biotechnological applications. These services include the provision of traditional medicines, pharmaceuticals, assay organisms, and various biochemicals used for therapeutic purposes. They also encompass genetic resources, such as plant and animal genetic materials, that are essential for bioprospecting, gene synthesis, and the development of new breeds or products. The ecosystem contributes genetic material from all biota, including seed, spore, or gamete production, which serves as an intermediate service to biomass provisioning. These resources also play a critical role in maintaining genetic diversity, thereby supporting biodiversity protection. Economic value for these services is sometimes calculated, using a variety of valuation methods and metrics, such as the fraction of species locally known and used medicinally or phylogenetic diversity. ## Clean Air Air quality and filtration ecosystem services refer to the multi-faceted role that ecosystems, including forests, urban green open spaces, and riparian zones, play in maintaining breathable air and mitigating the harmful effects of pollutants. Falling under the umbrella of regulating and maintenance services, these services encompass the capturing and removal of fine particulate matter, ozone, sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds, among other pollutants. The economic value of these services is often calculated using an avoided cost approach, factoring in healthcare savings and market prices for alternative air purification methods. Studies quantify the impact using various metrics such as dollar per acre per year, retention and prevented emissions of pollutants, and annual net primary production. These ecosystem services not only contribute to human well-being by reducing respiratory illnesses and healthcare costs but also play a vital role in regulating atmospheric composition and conditions, thus maintaining the stability and balance crucial for environmental health. ## Climate Stability Climate Stability is based on on the interdependent hydrological and carbon cycles, which influence temperature, weather patterns, and greenhouse gas levels. This stability is further bolstered by the synergistic contributions of various ecosystems, from forests and wetlands to urban green spaces. These ecosystems are crucial for carbon sequestration, gas regulation, and atmospheric condition modification, impacting both global and local climates, including temperature, humidity, and rainfall patterns. Economic value for these ecosystem services is assessed through methods like avoided cost, social cost of carbon (SCC), and market values, using metrics that range from carbon storage rates per acre per year to rates of heat mitigation in urban areas. Together, these elements contribute to a comprehensive understanding of climate regulation, which encompasses both the reduction of greenhouse gas concentrations and the regulation of atmospheric and oceanic chemistry, highlighting the critical role of ecosystems in mitigating climate change and supporting human well-being. ## Clean Water Water quality and filtration ecosystem services encompass the biological mechanisms that regulate the chemical composition of freshwater, groundwater, and coastal waters. These services are carried out by a range of organisms, including algae, animals, microorganisms, and vascular and non-vascular plants, to remove water pollutants through soil filtration, transformation by vegetation, and microbial activities. Ecosystem components are involved in breaking down waste and effectively isolating or transforming waste and toxins, such as nitrogen and phosphorus. The service category is generally classified as 'Regulating and Maintenance,' and the economic value is often calculated using methods like meta-analysis, replacement costs, and avoided costs. Metrics for these services include nutrient export at watershed/subwatershed outlets, areas of highest filtration, and the proportion of nitrogen retained as an indicator. These natural mechanisms serve as an ecological buffer against environmental degradation, improve water security, and mitigate harmful effects on human health and use. ## Risk Resilience Hazard Risk Reduction and Disaster Mitigation ecosystem services, often categorized under Regulating and Maintenance services, function to mitigate the risks and impacts of natural and extreme events such as floods, storms, fires, and droughts. These services operate through diverse ecosystems including forests, coastal and inland wetlands, urban green spaces, and coral reefs, providing sheltering, buffering, and attenuating effects. Valuation methods often include avoided costs, alternative costs, and meta-analysis, with metrics measured in various units like USD per acre per year or risk reduction percentages. Specific methodologies like geophysical modeling, hydrodynamic modeling, and function transfer methods tailor the economic value to U.S.-specific metrics, covering factors like income per capita and GDP. These services extend from moderation of extreme events, flood and storm protection to mediation of nuisances like noise and solid waste. Importantly, these services not only protect human communities but also enhance the resilience of ecosystems against both regular and extreme environmental events. ## Pollination Pollination, classified under various categories such as Supporting, Regulating, Provisioning, and Agricultural Management, is a multifaceted ecosystem service that involves the transfer of pollen to facilitate the fertilization of plants. This process is carried out by a range of vectors including wind, insects, birds, and other animals. It serves critical functions beyond agricultural production, contributing to the maintenance of biodiversity, ecosystem health, and the abundance and/or diversity of other species. Economic value has been widely acknowledged, calculated through various methods like Market Price and specific valuation indices, and estimated to be significant—approximately $40 billion per year in the U.S. alone, according to one study. Metrics used for its assessment range from qualitative and quantitative measures like pollinator diversity, pollinator abundance index, and the extent of natural habitat in agricultural areas to economic contribution to agricultural production. Pollination services can be both a final and intermediate service, with wide-ranging impacts on food production, genetic diversity, and even cattle feed through insect-pollinated legumes. ## Erosion Control Erosion Control, categorized primarily as a Regulating service across different frameworks, involves the stabilization and retention of soil and sediment primarily through vegetation cover. This ecosystem service not only retains arable land and maintains slope stability but also contributes to coastal integrity and water quality. It plays a key role in reducing the risks and impacts of extreme events such as storms, floods, landslides, and avalanches. Economic value is often calculated using various valuation methods like Meta-Analysis, Market Price, Avoided Cost, and Replacement Cost, and metrics for its assessment include soil erosion rate, risk reduction, and sediment load delivered to streams. The service has wide-ranging benefits, including the support of agricultural activities, reduced road maintenance and dredging costs, and enhanced resilience against both regular and extreme environmental events. It's an intermediate to final service that guides improved land management practices, ultimately contributing to the stability and resilience of ecosystems. ## Pest & Disease Control Biological (Pest and Disease) Control, predominantly classified as a Regulating service, encompasses the ecosystem's role in providing pest, weed, and disease control. This includes the natural regulation of the incidence of harmful species that may affect both biomass production processes and human health. The service is delivered through both direct introduction and maintenance of predator populations and natural ecological functions like predator-prey relationships and microbial communities. These mechanisms contribute to overall ecosystem health and stability, often reducing the need for synthetic interventions such as herbicides. Economic value is commonly assessed using the Avoided Cost method, and metrics include population density of detrimental organisms, reduction in incidence, and ecosystem resilience. This service is beneficial for various economic and human activities, including agriculture and public health, and can be considered either a final or intermediate service. ## Habitat Habitat, primarily categorized as a Supporting or Regulating and Maintenance service, plays an essential role in providing shelter, promoting the growth of species, and maintaining biological diversity. The service encompasses natural processes vital for species propagation and survival, such as nursery populations, refugia for migratory and resident species, and gene pool protection. It contributes to sustaining populations that are economically or recreationally important, often serving as an intermediate input to other final ecosystem services like biomass provision. Habitats range from coastal and inland wetlands to urban and rural green open spaces, and their functions are critical for the perpetuation of biodiversity and overall ecosystem health. Economic valuation methods vary, from Meta-Analysis and Contingent Valuation to more relative assessments like habitat quality maps and risk assessments. Metrics used to measure this service include the extent of suitable habitat, biodiversity intactness, and specific economic values per acre or hectare. ## Recreation & Experiences Recreation, Tourism, and Experiential ecosystem services fall under the category of cultural or informational services and encompass a wide array of experiences and economic benefits, both qualitative and quantitative. These services provide opportunities for direct, in-situ, physical and experiential interactions with diverse natural settings such as forests, coastal wetlands, inland wetlands, urban and rural open spaces, riparian habitats, beaches, dunes, shellfish reefs, and coral reefs. These interactions may focus on health, recuperation, or enjoyment, often measured by metrics like dollar-per-acre value, $/ha/yr, or "viewer days" per year. Methods for economic valuation include but are not limited to travel cost studies, meta-analysis, market price, hedonic pricing, contingent valuation, replacement cost, choice experiments, and function transfers. These services enrich human well-being by offering opportunities for mental restoration, recreational fishing, boating, hunting, birding, and other leisure activities, thereby contributing to local and national economies. ## Research & Learning Research & Learning ecosystem services encompass the use of natural systems and their biophysical characteristics for scientific research, education, cognitive development, and cultural expression. This multifaceted service category facilitates human prosperity and well-being by offering platforms for intellectual pursuits, enabling the acquisition of knowledge, skill development, and opportunities for both academic study and traditional ecological knowledge. It contributes to policy development, technological design—including biomimicry—and artistic inspiration. Metrics for evaluating this service vary widely, ranging from economic valuation methods such as Meta-Analysis and value estimates in terms of $/ha/yr, to more qualitative and quantitative measures like community engagement scores, number of people in close proximity to nature, academic publications, and the diversity of life from which to learn. These metrics are often adapted to fit diverse environmental settings, including coral reefs, landscapes, and seascapes. ## Aesthetic & Sensory Aesthetic & Sensory ecosystem services encapsulates the enjoyment and appreciation of natural scenery, sounds, and smells, offering sensory benefits especially in visual amenity. This service includes both attractive landscapes and ornamental resources like decorative plants and handicrafts. It is a cultural service that enriches human well-being by facilitating activities focused on healing, relaxation, recreation, and leisure, both through active and passive interactions with nature. Economic value is often calculated through methods such as hedonic pricing and meta-analysis, with metrics like $/ha/yr, viewshed maps, and area of natural landscapes being employed. The service can be further quantified through the number of people who engage in physically and psychologically beneficial activities in close contact with nature, thereby contributing to the overall amenity values of ecosystems. ## Art & Inspiration Art & Inspiration ecosystem services, also known under various other terms like Cultural Value or Spiritual Experience, provide multifaceted opportunities for human engagement with natural landscapes, seascapes, habitats, and organisms for spiritual, religious, historical, aesthetic, and intellectual enrichment. These services facilitate both material and non-material aspects of human well-being, including psychological and physical experiences, leisure, and recreation. They offer platforms for artistic and cultural expression, spiritual or religious activities, and the development of a sense of place, identity, and community cohesion. While the benefits often transcend monetary value, when economic valuation is pursued, metrics like USD per hectare per year or stability of land use and cover may be used. These services underscore the intangible yet deeply significant value of nature in enhancing human psychological well-being, social cohesion, and overall cultural richness. ## Existence & Legacy Existence & Legacy ecosystem services are the well-being and intrinsic worth derived from the mere existence, preservation, and potential future significance of ecosystems, species, and their biotic and abiotic characteristics. These services span the categories of Information, Cultural, and Non-Material services. They include Existence Value, which is the satisfaction gained from knowing a natural resource exists, and Bequest Value, the importance of preserving these resources for future generations. Also encapsulated is the concept of "keeping options open" or “Option Value," which emphasizes the importance of preserving a variety of biological entities for their potential future benefits, including unknown discoveries and ongoing biological evolution. Economic valuation methods like Replacement Cost and Meta-Analysis may be employed, with quantifiable metrics ranging from annualized economic valuations and USD per hectare per year to species' survival probability and phylogenetic diversity. Together, these elements emphasize the multi-dimensional importance of preserving biological entities for both current well-being and the well-being of future generations. ## Land Utilization Land Utilization refers to the rights, activities, and legal frameworks associated with the ownership, management, and use of real estate and infrastructure assets. Rooted in the "bundle of rights," it encompasses the right to possess, use, control, and dispose of land and built structures. It covers everything from outright ownership to various forms of leasing, influenced by real property law, zoning regulations, and contractual arrangements like public-private partnerships. A major consideration, albeit nuance, is that all the traditional terrestrial ecosystem service categories and benefits flow from the land and the real asset legal paradigm. ## Resource Utilization Resource Utilization refers to the use, and management of natural commodities and resources tied to real property, encompassing both traditional and emerging rights. While traditional rights like mineral, water, and air rights focus on extraction and use, emerging rights like carbon, natural asset, and viewshed rights expand the scope to include environmental services like carbon sequestration and aesthetic preservation. These rights can be owned, leased, or traded independently of the real estate, often in line with environmental goals and natural capital investment strategies. A major consideration, albeit nuance, is that the traditional ecosystem service categories of raw materials, food, energy are included here as they are no longer separate from real property rights. # Why put a Value on Nature? The [Appendix](/appendix/glossary) references thousands of sources as to why and how to value nature. These two quotes ground us in the ***why***: > "***Only when the last tree has been cut down, the last fish been caught, and the last stream poisoned, will we realize we cannot eat money.***" > > \- Osage saying, circa 1893 > "***…by bringing economics and ecology together, we can help save the natural world at what may be the last minute – and in doing so, save ourselves.***" > > \- Sir David Attenborough \ > The Dasgupta Review: the Economics of Biodiversity 2021 The RealValue of Natural Capital expresses the value nature in a language everyone understands: dollars. *** {% hint style="success" %} "*BASIN is not financializing nature, we are naturalizing finance.*" - Jeff Stephens {% endhint %} # The RealValue of Natural Capital The RealValue of Natural Capital expresses the relationship of ecological stocks and flows at a point in time based on ecosystem extent, characteristics, and condition, in a common language, dollars. ## The Higher & Better Use of Real Assets Ecosystems, like it or not, are subject to the jurisdictional authority of place. They are integrated into our collective economic, legal, and social frameworks as real assets and real property. In real asset valuation, the prevailing approach prioritizes the 'highest and best use' of a property, emphasizing the maximization of financial returns and profitability. To maximize profit, properties are developed based on what is legally permissible and physically possible, leading to significant land use changes to accommodate human use and consumption. This valuation paradigm results in the destruction of ecosystems and the loss of the benefits they provide. In contrast, RealValue establishes the 'higher and better use' of real assets by emphasizing the importance of accounting for the benefits provided by nature and valuing natural capital in monetary terms. This approach presents a compelling alternative for determining how a 'property' should be utilized, juxtaposing short-sighted valuations with holistic assessments that consider the broader ecological context. ## RealValue Composition RealValue is comprised of and calculated based on two main components: Ecological Polygon and RealValues. ### Ecological Polygon This is ecosystem that is being valued consisting of extent, characteristics, and condition. ### RealValues These are the individual values of the Core Benefits converted to and expressed in dollar values. ## RealValue Expression RealValue is expressed via two metrics and one indicator: * **Stocks**: real asset dollar ($) value at a point in time (lump sum *metric*). The stocks value is the 'real world' price, cost, or value of a polygon (the underlying real asset). * **Flows**: annual economic and financial dollar ($/yr) values (annual *metric*). Economic values are referred to as Public Goods Values and financial values as Anthropocentric Values. * **Natural Capitalization Rate**: expresses the relationship between the value of the stocks and flows. This indicator allows for comparison across polygons and ecosystems based on condition, intervention, and underlying real asset market values. Formula: Flows dollar value divided by Stocks dollar value equals the Natural Cap Rate (*indicator*). ## Linking Ecological Indicators & Indices The RealValue metrics and indicator can be linked to any assortment of [ecological metrics, variables, indicators and indices](/appendix/ecological-indicators-and-metrics), both quantitative and qualitative, to assess overall ecosystem state, function, and health including biodiversity. ## Examples of RealValue Before diving into the details of Ecological Polygons and RealValues, here are some [examples of RealValue and Natural Cap Rates](/realvalue/the-realvalue-of-natural-capital/examples-of-realvalue).

Examples of RealValue

# Examples of RealValue Here are selected expressions of RealValue. **The most current iterations can be found in the** [**BASIN Ensurance Binder**](https://binder.basin.global/)**.** ## Pilot Sites These are three sites we have assessed for [Ecological Ensurance](/ensurance/critical-infrastructure).
## RealValues Visuals RealValues for one site expressed in different visuals.
# Ecological Polygon The Ecological Polygon serves as the foundational unit of natural capital accounting within the RealValue framework. It is the 'place' of ecological stocks which gives bounty to the ecological flows. An ecological polygon can be any size, anywhere in the world, of any ecosystem composition. It can be an arbitrarily drawn or selected polygon, or can be a very specific polygon based on biophysicality, jurisdictional boundaries or property legal description. {% hint style="success" %} In most cases the property legal description will and should be used as the boundary of an ecological polygon to allow for certification within the BASIN Protocol. {% endhint %} ## Main Components The ecological polygon has four main components: **extent**, **characteristics**, **condition**, and **on/off record data**. ### Ecosystem Extent This is the size and make up of the polygon. It can be in hectares or acres and all ecosystem types present in the polygon should be delineated based on size. If possible, past and future ecosystem composition should be noted and assessed. ### Ecosystem Characteristics At a minimum, the land cover and ecosystem types present in the polygon should be delineated using the [BASIN Ecosystems](/core-benefits/core-benefits-framework/stocks-ecosystems/ecosystem-definitions). Other data should also be included such as IUCN Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG), One Earth Bioregions, and Resolve Ecoregions. ### Ecosystem Condition This is an assessment of ecosystem state, function and overall condition. It should be applied to each ecosystem present in the polygon individually. We currently rank each ecosystem on a scale of 1-10 with a 10 being an undisturbed, pristine, fully functioning ecosystem. The condition metric is a multiplier to ecosystem extent and the BASIN RealValues discussed in the next section. {% hint style="info" %} #### **SEEA Ecosystem Condition Typology (ECT)** If time and budget permits, the **SEEA Ecosystem Condition Typology (ECT)** should be applied to the polygon. The ECT assesses: * A: Abiotic: Physical & Chemical characteristics; * B: Biotic: Compositional, Structural, & Functional characteristics; * C: Landscape & Seascape characteristics #### SEED Biocomplexity Separately we are hoping to be a beta tester of Crowther Lab ETH Zürich's [SEED Biocomplexity](https://seed-index.com/). SEED is a standardized biodiversity index that measures the full complexity of nature. Similar to our 1-10 multiplier, SEED uses a 0-1 scale and assesses the variation and interactions across: * **Genetic diversity** *within* species * **Species diversity** *between* species * **Ecosystem diversity** *across ecosystems* {% endhint %} ### On/Off Record Data As much real asset and real property data as possible should be gathered about the polygon, both of record (public) and off record (private). This should include but is in no way limited to title reports, appraisals, surveys, deed, leases, agreements, mineral and energy reports, environmental assessments, property condition reports, ecological assessments, soils reports, zoning designation, flood plain data, and property financials. Other data can also prove useful such as demographic and income reports, crime reports, long term land use master plans and transportation plans. Other qualitative data such as owner, neighbor, and local sentiment about the place and region is also useful. ## Data and Assessment Quality and Confidence The range and quality of data for polygons will vary based on location, jurisdiction, ownership, purpose of the assessment and valuation, budget, timeline and many other factors. As RealValue is an estimate of value, data quality is important but not paramount. Best efforts should be made to gather as much data as possible, make the best assessment with reasonable confidence, and then clearly state and disclose the data and methodology. # RealValues Based on the [Core Benefits Framework](/core-benefits/natures-core-benefits), **RealValues** are the **individual** stock and flow dollar values that comprise RealValue. The RealValue methodology reveals two primary categories of values of the Core Benefits: Anthropocentric Values and Public Goods Values. ## Anthropocentric Values These values include widely recognized forms such as a property's market value and income, commonly classified as real assets. These are often referred to as financial value and typically part of the Provisioning category of ecosystem services. ## Public Goods Values These are historically considered positive externalities and encapsulate the common benefits that nature provides for free, customarily classified as ecosystem services. These are often referred to as economic values and typically part of the Regulation, Maintenance, or Cultural categories of ecosystem services. ## Core Benefits Reconciliation While 21 Core Benefits were identified, when converted to RealValues based on Anthropocentric or Public Goods classification it takes them down to 18. The reason being is that three of the Core Benefits, Raw Materials, Food, and Energy, fall into the Land and Resource Utilization categories as those real property rights 'run with the land'. *** {% hint style="success" %} The full valuation methodology, including Real Asset and Ecosystem Services Valuation Methods and Types of Value, is detailed in the [Appendix](/appendix/glossary). {% endhint %} # STOCKS Values In the RealValue framework, the stocks value is the financial of the underlying real asset. It is the 'real world' price, cost, or value of a polygon. Stocks are expressed as the real asset dollar value at a point in time ($). Depending on user perspective and the intent of the RealValuation, this value can be the price of a property, the cost of a project, or other types of value like insurable value or the market value. It can even be leasehold value or cost. ### Capitalization Approach As common in investment real estate valuation using the capitalization approach to value, the Land Utilization and Resource Utilization Core Benefits flows give way to the underlying real asset value. *See:* [*Natural Cap Rate*](/realvalue/the-realvalue-of-natural-capital/natural-cap-rate) *** {% hint style="success" %} If we do our job right, the paradigm of stocks primarily being regarded as real assets and anthropocentric values could change to stocks being truly valued for their holistic value. Just as in investment real estate, the dynamic relationship of the stocks and flows expressed via Natural Cap Rate changes the value of the underlying asset. As an example, if the average market natural cap rate of wetlands is 120% it begins to make all wetlands value be based on the cap rate, not the local land value. {% endhint %} *** {% hint style="info" %} The [Appendix](/appendix/glossary) covers real asset classes, types of value and valuation methods in detail. {% endhint %} # FLOWS Values To fully account for the RealValue, Flow values consist of both Anthropocentric Values and Public Goods Values. Flows are expressed as the annual economic and financial dollar values ($/yr). **Anthropocentric flow values** are real income generated from the polygon. Commonly referred to as Net Operating Income (NOI) this can be use and rental income from land or buildings, and income from the provisioning Core Benefits of raw materials, food, and energy. It can also be carbon or biodiversity credit income, Renewable Energy Certificate (REC) sales, or any other actual income produced from the property. **Public Goods flow values** are the remaining Core Benefits which are commonly referred to as externalities. They are valuable yet obtained for free and often times degraded due to excludable private property rights. Public Goods Values are also called Ecosystem Service Values (ESV). {% hint style="warning" %} It is important to reconcile the Anthropocentric and Public Goods values on a regular basis as to prevent double counting. For example if water or biodiversity certificates are sold and converted to real income then the full Public Goods value should be debited and the actual Anthropocentric value credited. {% endhint %} ## The 18 RealValues of Natural Capital
Anthropocentric ValuesPublic Goods Values
Land UtilizationClean Air
Resource UtilizationClean Water
Water Abundance
Healthy Soils
Climate Stability
Risk Resilience
Erosion Control
Pest & Disease Control
Pollination
Habitat
Medicinal & Genetic
Recreation & Experiences
Research & Learning
Art & Inspiration
Aesthetic & Sensory
Existence & Legacy
## Accounting Units ### Dollar Values RealValues are derived from our extensive ESV dataset based in dollars per acre per year ($/ac/yr). When applied to an Ecological Polygon, the result translates to dollars per year ($/yr). These units can easily be converted to hectares. Anthropocentric Values are quantified based on the Ecological Polygon's actual or proforma Net Operating Income (NOI), a standard metric in real estate investment. Public Goods Values, on the other hand, are based on meta-analytic ecosystem service values as outlined in the [Appendix](/appendix/glossary). ### Ecological Indicators Dollar values can be linked to any assortment of [ecological metrics, variables, indicators and indices](/appendix/ecological-indicators-and-metrics), both quantitative and qualitative, to assess overall ecosystem state, function, and health including biodiversity. {% hint style="success" %} See BASIN's 250+ Ecological Indicators: [Ecological Indicators & Metrics](/appendix/ecological-indicators-and-metrics) {% endhint %} # Natural Cap Rate Capitalization Rates, or Cap Rates, serve as a fundamental tool in real estate investment for valuation and comparison. Their simplicity and efficiency make them popular for quickly assessing **relational value**. The Natural Cap Rate works the same way as a Cap Rate but instead of focusing just on financial income it incorporates **holistic ecological value**. ## Natural Capitalization Rate A Natural Capitalization Rate expresses the relationship between the stocks and flows of ecological value. This indicator allows for comparison across polygons and ecosystems based on condition, intervention, and underlying real asset market values. ## Formula
## Use Cases * compare ecosystem values * compare polygons * compare existing conditions to proforma conditions * compare markets * prescribe value to a property via cap rate * calculate uplift and value change ## Relational Value A Natural Cap Rate is a quick expression of the relational value of natural asset stocks and ecosystem flows. For example, the following can be expressed as: a) a natural cap rate of 493% OR b) using $ values: **FLOWS:** $1,449,703 **STOCKS:** $294,250 **GAP**: $1,155,453 They both say the same thing about this:
# RealValue Use Cases New uses for the RealValue of Natural Capital are emerging everyday. Here are the common ones thus far: * The higher and better use real assets (as opposed to the highest and best use) * What’s the RealValue of a property or place? * Maximize the holistic value of a property * Express the value of conservation * Express the value of restoration * Intervention comparison * Streamlined Natural Capital and Ecosystem Accounting (as opposed to five/six digit costs) * Compare holistic lease v. own * Compare holistic hold v. sell * Cost benefit analysis * Project crediting and certificates * Credit and certificate valuation and pricing * Nature disclosure {% hint style="info" %} **Where / how can you get your project or property valued?** Simply get in touch! [Contact Thomas Morgan, CCIM](/dossier/contact) {% endhint %} # Critical Infrastructure Society, and the economy, is 100% dependent on Nature. All well-being is inextricably linked to the collective health of our planet's deeply interconnected ecological systems. Nature, biodiversity, and people are the critical infrastructure of our world. Ecological Ensurance, by BASIN, **ensures** the protection and regeneration of this critical infrastructure. # Natural Asset Ensurance Natural Asset Ensurance, by BASIN, ensures that the RealValue of Natural Capital is protected and stewarded in perpetuity. (fka Ecological Ensurance) ## Insurance v. Ensurance Unlike traditional insurance, which is retroactive, Ensurance is proactive, focusing on the protection ecosystems from day one while providing a definitive path to permanent protection along with restoration and stewardship funding. Ensurance Policies and Certificates of Ensurance are issued for specific Natural Assets. ## How it Works Utilizing the RealValue of Natural Capital framework for specific ecological polygons (properties), Natural Asset Ensurance 1) properly values the stocks and flows of natural capital, 2) triangulates the relational value of the underlying real asset and natural capital value, and 3) outputs a range of financially viable options that ensure the immediate and permanent protection and stewardship of the Natural Asset. {% hint style="success" %} Natural Asset Ensurance is now active at [ensurance.app](https://ensurance.app/)! Please go there for most up to date info. {% endhint %} ## Key components of Natural Asset Ensurance ### Ensurance Ensures that ecosystems and the benefits they provide, including biodiversity, will permanently be protected and stewarded. ### Ensurance Policy The Policy is the specifications of the Ensurance coverage, cost, and length. ### Ensurance Slip Slips are the precursor to policies with each slip containing all the preliminary data needed for a EP to be considered for a formal policy. ### Ensurance Premium The premium is the annual cost of the Ensurance Policy. The premium is calculated based off of the relationship between the annual RealValue, capital providers (Ensurers), and the underlying real asset cost/value. This relationship calculates cost options to put the ecosystem in permanent trust either today, 2030, 2040, or 2050. Alternatively, Ensurance Premiums can be calculated for any custom # of years including a minimum premium amount which is the lowest cost but only protects the ecosystem year by year, not permanently. {% hint style="success" %} The term "premium" has its origins in the Latin word "praemium," which means "reward" or "prize." While premium has different meanings today, the historical definition is highly applicable to Ensurance: premiums were seen as payments for securing a service or benefit, often with a positive connotation of receiving something valuable in return. What greater value is there than [regenerative wealth](/provenance/what-you-seek)? {% endhint %} ### Certificates of Ensurance Certificates Ensurance have a dual purpose as 1) the individual units of the RealValue of Natural Capital specific to the EP and 2) 1:1 common interests in the overall BASIN Protocol. Certificates are issued for each EP based on the Ensurance rate calculations. Notably, the difference between the RealValue and the highest viable Ensurance Premium is put on Nature’s Balance Sheet and distributed to Nature itself via the BASIN Protocol. In other words, only the absolute minimum number of certificates required to make the ensurance effective are available for purchase, the rest remain in the Protocol. ### Ensurance Underwriter The underwriter is responsible for evaluating and deciding the risk of ensuring ecological polygons, determining policy terms, setting premium prices, working with Ensurers, Ensurance Agents and the Ensured. ### Ensurer aka Ensurance carrier, the Ensurer issues the Ensurance policy, bearing the risk in exchange for Ensurance premiums paid by the Policyholder and/or the Ensured. Ensurer’s are BASIN Members that are either market rate investors, philanthropic funders, or blended finance vehicles that fund the real asset cost upfront and during the policy period. ### Ensurance Policyholder This is the primary or majority holder of the ensurance policy and is often times the payor of the premium. Importantly, only the Policyholder gets the official claim on the ecological indicator data from the ensured polygon. ### Ensured Unique to Ensurance, the Ensured is nature itself, which by definition includes humans and our constructs of society and economy. The Ensured is the ecology of place: the ecosystem and species themselves, the land owner, neighbors, the region, and the direct, indirect, and cumulative beneficiaries of ecosystem system services. The BASIN Protocol is the payment mechanism by and for the Ensured. ### Ensurance Agents Agents are members of the BASIN Protocol who are seeking to fund their own nature and climate projects or help others fund their projects. Ensurance Agents help source and underwrite Ensurance polices and sell Certificates of Ensurance. ### Entrust Once the the Ensurance Premium has been paid in full and the Ensurance Policy has ended, the EP (land/ecosystem) goes into permanent trust. The trust structure is outlined in the BASIN Protocol. # Ensurance Examples Ecological Ensurance can be seen in action in the [BASIN Ensurance Binder](https://binder.basin.global/). ## Example of an [83 acre wetland](https://binder.basin.global/slips/ecological-ensurance-slips/83-acre-wetland-and-forest-southeast-savannas-and-riparian-bioregion) in the Binder
# The Value Gap A value gap lies between the intrinsic value of nature and its instrumental value as perceived by society. This dichotomy is further illustrated by contrasting ecocentric and anthropocentric values. Consider the following reflections: > *“**How can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of the land? The idea is strange to us. If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how can you buy them from us?**”* > > -1854, Chief Seattle to the US Government > *“**Buy land, they're not making it anymore.**”* > > -Mark Twain The BASIN Protocol bridges this relational value gap. # Nature's Balance Sheet The discourse on adding 'nature to the balance sheet' and incorporating 'biodiversity on the balance sheet' has gained significant momentum. This concept, a foundational premise of BASIN from day one, continues to guide us. Yet, we recognize that this approach is human-centric — framed by "What can nature do for me?" rather than exploring how we can coexist with nature and other species. ## Rights of Nature & Interspecies The emergence of the Rights of Nature and Interspecies movements heralds new paradigms of agency, autonomy, and 'ownership' that move beyond anthropocentric models. The BASIN Protocol is our acknowledgment of and participation in these transformative shifts, aiming to redefine our relationship with the planet. ## RealValue & Ecological Ensurance Utilizing RealValue to properly value nature in economic and financial terms reveals that the relational value gap is actually a transformative tool, not a problem. Utilizing Ecological Ensurance, only a fraction of nature's value needs to be converted into financial assets to ensure the perpetual stewardship of ecosystems. Crucially, the bulk of this value, particularly its economic worth in monetary terms, can and should be allocated directly to nature itself. ## Nature's Assets This approach to value allocation enables nature to 'own' and utilize assets for its own protection and stewardship, inherently benefiting all living beings, including humans. BASIN is dedicated to constructing Nature's Balance Sheet, with the BASIN Protocol enabling this vision to become a technical reality. *** {% hint style="success" %} **In no way does the BASIN Protocol supplant initiatives aimed at creating a ‘ledger for planet Earth’.** While Regen Network and Hedera concentrate on ecological assets including carbon and biodiversity credits, BASIN prioritizes the concept of Earth 'owning itself' with the goal of Half Earth. Ecological assets can and should be issued on top of and part of the real assets that are the foundation of the BASIN Protocol. {% endhint %} # The BASIN Protocol {% hint style="success" %} This has all been incorporated into Natural Asset Ensurance at [ensurance.app](https://ensurance.app/) - go there for most up to date version. {% endhint %} BASIN protects, restores and stewards nature and ecosystems in perpetuity. ## Protocol The BASIN Protocol **ensures** the ecology of PLACE, on PURPOSE, by PEOPLE. ## Members The BASIN Protocol is actively run by its members. ## Accounts All members have a .basin account which serves as the confluence to stocks and flows of natural capital, the people, and underlying real assets that make up the protocol. BASIN Accounts can be managed individually or collectively and can hold almost any type of value. {% hint style="info" %} What does this mean technically? See the [Contracts](broken://pages/KGufUnkv5WVF1c40gxUo) section for details. {% endhint %} ## BASIN STREAM FLOWS .BASIN's are perpetual trust accounts that represent and operate as the **stocks** of PLACE, PURPOSE, and PEOPLE. STREAMS represent and operate as the **flows** between PLACE, PURPOSE, and PEOPLE. As a platform cooperative, .basin's are 1:1 membership of the protocol, while STREAMS function as patronage certificates, reflecting the collaborative and dynamic nature of how BASIN STREAMS work together via FLOWS. {% hint style="success" %} A way to think of the BASIN Protocol is that BASIN's gather, hold, and filter the value of our world's most precious treasures while STREAMS are the FLOWS of value. Collectively BASIN members steward Nature's value for sustainable well-being of all species and ecosystems. {% endhint %} ## PLACE, PURPOSE, PEOPLE .basin's represent either place, purpose, or people. Each are described in the the next section.

# PLACE A PLACE in the BASIN Protocol is either **a point or polygon**. ### Examples of PLACE * amazon.basin * roaring-fork-river.basin * mount-sopris.basin * tarpon-corner.basin * 83-wetlands.basin ### PLACE Subtypes * bioregion * ecoregion * watershed * property or parcel * mountains, definitive ecosystem, trees * town, city, county, country # PURPOSE A PURPOSE in the BASIN Protocol are either **a ecosystem type, ecosystem service, species, cause, or motivation**. ### Subtypes & Examples of PURPOSE {% hint style="info" %} note: these have been converted to .ensurance accounts. ie marine-systems.ensurance {% endhint %}
The 15 BASIN Ecosystems * cultivated-developed.basin * urban-open-space.basin * rural-open-space.basin * rivers-lakes.basin * inland-wetlands.basin * tropical-forests.basin * temperate-forests.basin * boreal-forests.basin * coastal-systems.basin * grasslands.basin * shrublands.basin * polar-alpine.basin * deserts.basin * subterranean.basin * marine-systems.ensurance
The 18 Core Benefits of Natural Capital * clean-air.basin * clean-water.basin * water-abundance.basin * healthy-soils.basin * climate-stability.basin * risk-resilience.basin * erosion-control.basin * pest-disease-control.basin * pollination.basin * habitat.basin * medicinal-genetic.basin * recreation-experiences.basin * research-learning.basin * art-inspiration.basin * aesthetic-sensory.basin * existence-legacy.basin * resource-utilization.basin * land-utilization.basin
# PEOPLE PEOPLE in the BASIN Protocol are either **an individual or a group**. ### Examples of PEOPLE * hunter.basin * jhs.basin * tmo.basin * one-earth.basin * llc.basin * foundation.basin * avlt.basin ### PLACE Subtypes * person * company * non-profit * government * NGO # Model ## Metacrisis BASIN was founded on the belief that addressing the metacrisis at the climate-biodiversity-social nexus requires novel organizational structures and cooperation mechanisms. ## Transdisciplinary Results The complexity of these interconnected challenges necessitates the collaboration of multidisciplinary teams to produce transdisciplinary outcomes. ## Revenue, Business & Operational Model To this end, the BASIN Protocol revenue, business, and operational model is specifically designed to incentivize such cooperation. This model was detailed in our [v1 documentation](https://github.com/basin-global/docs-archived/tree/main/how) and has evolved into [Natural Asset Ensurance](/ensurance/natural-asset-ensurance). # Incentives At the core of Regenerative Finance is incentives and how regenerative mechanisms can be built into the activities and outcomes we seek. As a member operated protocol, incentives in BASIN are being designed around community platform fees, STREAM pricing and swaps, FLOW pricing, Total Value Locked (TVL), and discounts on member provided products and services. We consider these indicators, as well as others, in our incentive design: * CO2 PPM - Keeling Curve * Biocomplexity Scores * Living Planet Index * 30x30 and Half-Earth * GINI Index * Gross Happiness Index * SDG Tracker * NASA’s Land Use and Land Cover Change (LCLUC) Program Metrics * Heat Index & Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) * Certificates of Ensurance Floor Price * Industry & Sector Nature Risk & Dependencies - see [BASIN FLOWS](broken://pages/pKEvkpskJPPXYOmv3Fy5) # CO2 PPM - Keeling Curve ## Latest Reading: 424 ppm *as of 3/5/24*

https://keelingcurve.ucsd.edu/

# FAQ This is our main FAQ; new Q\&A are being added regularly. We have broken it down into sections but several overlap so feel free to use the [AI assisted search box](https://docs.basin.global/provenance/the-basin-field-manual?q=) up top. We [welcome](/dossier/contact) your questions and comments as well. ## Nature's Core Benefits
Is it wrong to put a price on nature? I am troubled by the idea of applying market logic to natural resources. Nature is already priced:\ \ ![](https://3870597334-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2FrTwmQvuiPojTS0hu8LkS%2Fuploads%2FjbEI3520G3AMEeHQ5lV9%2Fimage.png?alt=media\&token=79b1f1de-30e8-44e6-bf77-cad109b405f7)
## RealValue of Natural Capital
why the heck are real assets included in a nature framework? It's strategic. In a world of rules, we turn legal 'limitations' [into tools](https://dispatches.basin.global/the-tools-we-have) for sustainable impact. Laws aren't barriers; they're opportunities.
## Ecological Ensurance
Does ensurance negate the need for insurance? Certainly not as insurance is the prudent thing to do. However ensurance is specifically designed to lower insurance premiums for insureds and underwriting risk for carriers.
Does ensurance prevent or limit other types of credit or certificate sales? Absolutely not! Ensurance is designed to finance the land based on the real asset price and project costs. Once the land is ensured, we expect and encourage other credit types to be "stacked" on top or "bundled" with ensurance to enhance project feasibility. The notable concern is reconciliation of other credit sales with the re-issuance and/or release of Certificates of Ensurance for the project.
{% hint style="info" %} test {% endhint %} # Manifesto The [BASIN Manifesto](https://dispatches.basin.global/category/manifesto) is not only our compass but also our light. {% hint style="warning" %} In process of being merged from [v1 docs](https://github.com/basin-global/docs-archived/tree/main/why/manifesto). {% endhint %}

🪓 "As Improved"

as improved.jpeghttps://dispatches.basin.global/as-improved

⚡️ Adaptive Capacity

adaptive capacity.jpeghttps://dispatches.basin.global/adaptive-capacity

✚ Accounting For Nature

acct nature.jpeghttps://dispatches.basin.global/accounting-for-nature

🌌 Security. Not a Security.

security.jpeghttps://dispatches.basin.global/security-not-a-security

🎛️ Buttons, Knobs & Levers

buttons.jpeghttps://dispatches.basin.global/buttons-knobs-levers

🦫 Beavers, Biocrust, Bees & Bogs

beavers biocrust.jpeghttps://dispatches.basin.global/beavers-biocrust-bees-bogs

☂️ Buffer

buffer.jpeghttps://dispatches.basin.global/buffer

🛠 The Tools We Have

tools.jpeghttps://dispatches.basin.global/the-tools-we-have

🏦 Naturalizing Finance

nat fin.jpeghttps://dispatches.basin.global/naturalizing-finance

⌛ Buying Time

buying time NbS.jpghttps://dispatches.basin.global/buying-time
# Soundtrack Every journey needs a soundtrack. {% embed url="" %} # Contact BASIN Natural Capital\ BASIN LLC & BASIN Foundation\ PO Box 976 \ Carbondale, CO 81623 +1 970-618-4086 \ [www.basin.global](http://www.basin.global) # Other Projects # RWA x ReFi Report **This work was made possible via a generous grant from the** [**Climate Collective**](https://climatecollective.org/grants)**.** The "RWA for ReFi Report" explores the integration of Real World Assets (RWA) with Regenerative Finance (ReFi) to create ecological and social impacts through web3 and blockchain technologies. It discusses opportunities for creating a new system of asset ownership and governance based on regenerative principles, while also addressing the challenges faced in legal, technological, and financial domains. The report emphasizes the need for open-source projects, legal clarity, and community engagement to advance ReFi and RWA, highlighting various projects and initiatives contributing to this field. **License**: CC BY-SA 4.0 **First Published**: February 16th, 2023 **Updates:** Ongoing - [Add your comments / suggestions](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1IyHX8b_M9MjKG6UyXE6T53IMaP42BzZzXk-T6zY3cWY/edit?usp=sharing) ## Full RWA x ReFi Report [open in separate window](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1IyHX8b_M9MjKG6UyXE6T53IMaP42BzZzXk-T6zY3cWY/edit?usp=sharing) {% embed url="" fullWidth="true" %} RWA x ReFi Report {% endembed %} # Core Benefits Label **All finance is climate finance.** **Is your investment “healthy”? Is your project “nutritious”?** The Core Benefits Label is the deliverable from the August 2021 Climate Sprint which set out to answer "**How can we best value long-term co-benefits and ecosystem services when mobilizing climate finance?**" The Core Benefits Label offers a novel approach to valuing ecosystem services and co-benefits in climate finance. It was developed through a collaborative, rapid-development process aimed at providing clear, actionable insights for valuing long-term environmental and social benefits alongside traditional climate and financial goals. Inspired by nutrition labels, the Core Benefits Label helps investors and stakeholders identify and support climate projects with significant ecological and social impacts, enhancing transparency and evaluation for broader benefits beyond mere carbon reduction. The work is licensed under Creative Commons [CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) ## Climate Sprint Presentation {% embed url="" %} ## Core Benefits Label Slide Deck {% embed url="" %} ## Blank Core Benefits Label

Core Benefits Label

# Formalities # License ## Creative Commons **CC BY-NC-SA 4.0** All of BASIN's work, including but not limited to Natural Asset Ensurance, Natural Capital Ensurance, Markets For What Matters, is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (**CC BY-NC-SA 4.0**) by BASIN LLC. ### NonCommercial NonCommercial (NC) means ***not*** primarily intended for or directed towards commercial advantage or monetary compensation. **Under this license, NC is clarified to prohibit the following activities without prior written consent**: * Selling or monetizing any data, calculations, methods, or results derived from this work. * Use of this work in paid valuation or other real estate or natural capital services, including but not limited to brokerage and appraisal services. * Any form of property marketing or sales using information, data, or methods from this work. * The creation, minting, or sale of environmental assets including natural capital, carbon, biodiversity, ecological credits and/or certificates, in any form. ### Commercial Commercial use is allowed by BASIN Members within the BASIN Protocol. Alternatively, commercial options are available upon request. #### Ensurance The term "ensurance" and related concepts, to the extent not trademarked by others, are also licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. *** [Creative Commons Deed](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en) [Creative Commons Legal Code](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/legalcode.en) # Authors ## BASIN Field Manual ### Nature's Core Benefits ### The RealValue of Natural Capital A Framework and Methodology for the Higher and Better Use of Real Assets to Restore and Protect Ecosystems. RealValue uncovers, expresses, maximizes, and accounts for the holistic value (financial, social, and environmental) of any ecological polygon (property, land cover, or ecosystem) utilizing Ecosystem Services Valuation, Biodiversity Credits, and Resilience Certificates. v0.75 Winter 2024 ### Ecological Ensurance ## Primary Author Thomas Morgan, CCIM ## Core Contributors * Jim Smoot, Phd * Jeffrey Stephens * Tommy Polzin ## Reviewers, Editor, and Contributors coming soon # Disclaimer The information herein is believed to be accurate and reliable however we provide no guarantees or warranties. This content is informational and educational and should not be considered financial or investment advice. # Privacy We respect your privacy. We do not collect personal data beyond what's necessary for basic site functionality. We use cookies for essential features only. # Glossary {% hint style="warning" %} This section is an evolving work in process. {% endhint %} Compilation of regularly used terms and phrases in BASIN. Third-party sources are in *italics* as applicable. ## 0 ### **0xSplits** 0xSplits or Splits is a decentralized protocol utilizing Ethereum blockchain smart contracts (EVM) to automate the splitting of on-chain income among multiple recipients. It enables trustless, composable, and fee-less (apart from gas costs) distribution of funds according to predefined ratios. Designed for versatility, 0xSplits can be used for various purposes, including revenue sharing among project contributors, community fund management, and more. The protocol is open-source, audited, non-upgradeable, ensuring reliability and permanence as a foundational infrastructure for decentralized finance (DeFi) applications. ## 3 ### 30x30 (30 by 30) The "30x30" initiative, also known as "30 by 30," is a global conservation goal that aims to protect at least 30% of the world's land and oceans by the year 2030. This initiative recognizes the critical importance of preserving natural habitats and biodiversity to address environmental challenges such as climate change, habitat loss, and species extinction. By setting aside 30% of the Earth's land and oceans as protected areas or conservation zones, the 30x30 initiative seeks to promote ecosystem resilience, safeguard endangered species, and maintain the health of vital ecosystems. This goal aligns with broader conservation and sustainability efforts to ensure the long-term well-being of both humanity and the planet. Related: [Half Earth](#half-earth) ## A ### Aave Aave is a decentralized finance (DeFi) protocol operating on Ethereum that enables users to lend, borrow, and earn interest on cryptocurrencies. It eliminates traditional financial intermediaries, allowing users to deposit assets into liquidity pools for lending and borrowers to access loans with collateral. Aave has introduced innovations like flash loans and employs its native cryptocurrency, AAVE, for governance and collateral. It plays a key role in the growth of DeFi by providing efficient and accessible cryptocurrency lending and borrowing services. ### Adaptive Capacity Adaptive capacity refers to the ability of societies, ecosystems, and individuals to respond effectively to the impacts of environmental changes, including those related to climate change and biodiversity loss. In the context of IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services) and IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), adaptive capacity is a crucial concept for assessing and addressing the challenges posed by environmental changes. ### Additionality Additionality is a fundamental concept in environmental and conservation contexts, serving as a criterion to assess the true impact of initiatives and projects. In the realm of carbon offsetting, it scrutinizes whether emission reductions or removals achieved are genuinely additional to what would have naturally occurred or been legally required, ensuring the legitimacy of carbon credits. Similarly, in biodiversity conservation, it evaluates whether conservation actions result in a net increase in biodiversity compared to a no-intervention scenario, safeguarding the integrity of conservation efforts. Conservation finance also relies on additionality to confirm that investments lead to heightened conservation activities beyond the status quo. This concept plays a pivotal role in verifying the effectiveness of environmental endeavors, preventing double-counting of benefits, and directing resources toward meaningful solutions to environmental challenges. ### Area of influence The project area of influence is generally larger than the physical footprint of the project, and includes the area within which a project may potentially directly, indirectly, and cumulatively cause impacts to nature. *TNFD; IFC* ### Atmosphere Atmosphere includes the gaseous medium and its suspended particulate liquids and solids above the land realm, extending to the altitudinal limits of life. *TNFD* ## B ### Baseline Starting point or benchmark against which changes in the state of nature attributed to your business activities can be compared. *TNFD; Natural Capital Protocol* ### basinDAO After the Core Benefits Label Climate Sprint in the fall 2021, a small group formed a DAO called CMPND. CMPND was established to apply the CBL to assessing and developing climate projects as a venture studio. Realizing this was too general, CMPND was renamed basinDAO. basinDAO was the first iteration of what is now the BASIN Protocol. While we no longer use the term DAO, BASIN is similar to a DAO in that it is a polycentric organization operated by its members. ### **Biocomplexity** A multidisciplinary field that examines the intricate interactions and emergent properties among biological, ecological, social, and technological systems. Biocomplexity studies the dynamics and nonlinear relationships within and between various levels of biological organization, from genetic diversity within species to ecosystem diversity across landscapes. It emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of life and environments, aiming to understand the resilience, adaptability, and sustainability of living systems in the face of ecological, environmental, and societal challenges. This field underlines the critical importance of holistic approaches in conservation, restoration, and sustainable management practices. Related: [SEED Biocomplexity](#seed-biocomplexity) ### Biocredit a concept used to quantify and trade the ecological benefits or credits generated by conservation projects or initiatives aimed at preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services. These credits represent the positive impacts of such projects on biodiversity, habitat protection, or ecosystem restoration. Biocredits can be bought and sold as a mechanism to support conservation efforts, similar to carbon credits in the context of carbon offsetting. They encourage investment in conservation and sustainable land management practices, helping to safeguard biodiversity and promote ecological sustainability. ### Biodiversity The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) definition is: "The variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems." BASIN emphasizes that this definition includes not just the diversity within and between species, but also extends to the diverse ecological roles and interactions within the ecosystems, incorporating both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. BASIN places particular emphasis on the ecosystems themselves and the complex interrelationships, recognizing that organisms and species cannot exist in isolation from the ecosystems and habitat that sustain them. *TNFD; BASIN* ### Biodiversity Credit A biodiversity credit is a tradable unit representing a quantifiable and verified conservation or enhancement of biodiversity in a specific area. Biodiversity credits are part of market-based mechanisms designed to promote biodiversity conservation and offset the negative impacts of development or land use changes. These credits are generated through activities such as habitat restoration, species protection, or land preservation and can be bought and sold to compensate for biodiversity losses in other locations, providing a financial incentive for conservation efforts. Biodiversity credits aim to balance economic development with biodiversity preservation and are often used in regulatory frameworks like biodiversity offset programs. ### Biodiversity Net Gain a conservation approach and policy framework applied to development and land-use planning. This concept mandates that development projects must not only avoid harming biodiversity but also result in a quantifiable increase in biodiversity and habitat quality compared to the pre-development state. Under this principle, developers and landowners are required to assess the biodiversity value of a site before commencing any development activities. Subsequently, they must implement measures to enhance or restore biodiversity, often through activities such as habitat creation and native vegetation planting. Biodiversity net gain aligns with environmental objectives, recognizing the crucial role of biodiversity in maintaining ecosystem health and resilience while promoting sustainable economic development. ### Biodiversity Offset a conservation or restoration action taken to compensate for the adverse impacts on biodiversity resulting from development or land use changes in one location. The purpose of a biodiversity offset is to achieve "no net loss" or even a "net gain" of biodiversity by ensuring that the negative effects of a project on ecosystems, species, or habitats are balanced by conservation efforts elsewhere. Biodiversity offsets typically involve the restoration, protection, or creation of habitats or ecosystems of similar ecological value to those affected by development. These offset measures aim to contribute to the overall conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity. Biodiversity offsets are often required by regulatory authorities to mitigate the environmental impact of development projects. ### Biome Global-scale zones, generally defined by the type of plant life that they support in response to average rainfall and temperature patterns e.g., tundra, coral reefs or savannas. *TNFD; IPBES* ### Bundling Bundling involves grouping multiple ecosystem services or benefits together into a unified package for valuation or compensation. This approach acknowledges the interconnectedness of different ecosystem services and assesses their collective value, rather than evaluating each service separately. Bundling recognizes the combined benefits provided by ecosystems and is used to support comprehensive ecosystem valuation and management. Bundling Example: Instead of valuing flood regulation, water purification, and habitat separately, a wetland ecosystem's combined benefits are assessed and compensated as a single package. Related: [Stacking](#stacking) ## C ### Climate Adaptation Climate Adaptation is the process of adjusting to and preparing for the impacts of climate change. It involves developing strategies and implementing measures to reduce the vulnerability of individuals, communities, ecosystems, and infrastructure to climate-related risks. Climate adaptation aims to enhance resilience and ensure that societies can effectively respond to and recover from the changing climate. Adaptation efforts may include building resilient infrastructure, protecting natural ecosystems, implementing water management practices, and developing early warning systems to mitigate the impacts of extreme weather events and other climate-related challenges. ### Climate Finance Climate Finance is the allocation of financial resources, investments, and funding mechanisms to support climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts at local, national, and global levels. It encompasses a diverse array of financial instruments, including public funds, private investments, grants, loans, and market-based mechanisms like carbon trading. Climate finance aims to address the challenges posed by climate change by funding projects and initiatives that reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance climate resilience, and facilitate the transition to a low-carbon and climate-resilient economy. It plays a critical role in supporting developing countries in their efforts to combat climate change and fulfill their climate-related commitments under international agreements such as the Paris Agreement. Climate finance is instrumental in advancing climate action and facilitating the transformation towards a more sustainable and climate-resilient future. ### Climate Lease Developed by Thomas Morgan, CCIM, the Climate Lease introduces a financial strategy from investment real estate to environmental conservation, leading to the innovation of [Ecological Ensurance](/ensurance/critical-infrastructure). The climate lease, which has also been referred to as biodiversity lease, habitat lease, carbon lease, net zero lease, nature lease, conservation lease, and resilience lease, borrows from the global commercial real estate market the financial model that utilizes leasing instead of owning to enhance capital efficiency and minimize opportunity costs for conservation funders and entities dependent on ecosystem services. By leasing environmental assets funders can invest more projects, achieving better overall returns than if they were to allocate capital towards owning these assets. This leasing model provides the benefits of environmental stewardship without the upfront cost and financial burdens of ownership, encouraging investment in conservation. Ecological Ensurance is a derivative model of this that calculates the residual value of the real estate at zero which allows the land/property/ecosystem to go into permanent trust. Payments made under these long-term leases motivate real asset and income investors to support environmental projects, as they get market rate yields while knowing the land will ultimately be preserved in a trust. This ensures permanent protection for the leased ecosystems, offering a sustainable model for combining economic and environmental goals. ### Climate Mitigation Climate Mitigation is actions and strategies aimed at reducing or preventing the emission of greenhouse gases and other drivers of climate change. The primary goal of climate mitigation is to limit the extent of global warming and its associated impacts on the environment and human societies. Mitigation efforts encompass a wide range of activities, including transitioning to renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency, implementing sustainable land-use practices, and adopting policies to reduce emissions from industries and transportation. Climate mitigation is a critical component of global efforts to combat climate change and achieve international climate targets, such as those outlined in the Paris Agreement. ### Climate Resilience Climate Resilience is the capacity of individuals, communities, ecosystems, and systems to withstand and adapt to the adverse effects of climate change while maintaining essential functions. It involves strategies and measures aimed at reducing vulnerability to climate-related risks, enhancing adaptive capabilities, and ensuring the ability to recover from climate impacts. Climate resilience is crucial for safeguarding human well-being, ecosystems, infrastructure, and economies in the face of a changing climate, including extreme weather events, rising temperatures, and sea-level rise. ### Climate Sprint A Climate Sprint is a focused, three-week initiative designed by John Sanchez, aimed at immersing participants in tangible climate projects. It encourages a deep dive into climate solutions through learning, engaging with stakeholders, and team brainstorming towards a specific goal. This structured program offers accountability, collaboration, and a short, impactful timeline for those looking to explore or deepen their involvement in the climate field. John Sanchez, a Harvard undergrad on a gap year dedicated to climate change efforts, founded Climate Sprints to facilitate a hands-on approach to addressing climate challenges. ### Co-benefits Co-benefits associated with carbon reduction efforts are the positive side effects that go beyond addressing climate change. These co-benefits touch various aspects of society and the environment. One of the most notable is improved air quality, as actions to reduce carbon emissions often lead to decreased levels of harmful pollutants, benefiting public health by reducing respiratory illnesses and healthcare costs. Additionally, such efforts often promote energy efficiency, resulting in lower energy consumption, cost savings, and enhanced energy security. The transition to a low-carbon economy can also create jobs, contributing to economic growth. Biodiversity and ecosystems benefit from carbon reduction measures by preserving habitats and reducing resource exploitation. Moreover, these actions enhance community resilience and social equity, ensuring that the advantages of carbon mitigation are shared broadly, especially among marginalized populations. Recognizing these co-benefits underscores the importance of comprehensive climate strategies that yield numerous positive outcomes for society and the environment. ### Co-Benefits Climate Sprint In August 2021, the Climate Sprint focused on the valuation of long-term co-benefits and ecosystem services within climate finance. Participants were tasked with developing methods to identify, rate, and price the additional benefits of carbon projects. The teams worked on integrating these values into climate finance initiatives, aiming to align them with climate, financial, ESG, and impact goals. This Sprint covered areas such as carbon removal, climate adaptation, conservation, emissions reduction, energy transition, and climate justice, targeting a wide range of stakeholders. The final deliverables included a valuation system for co-benefits, a detailed project scope, and a pitch targeting potential investors or participants, designed to demonstrate the project's viability, scalability, and impact. Open to anyone with an interest in climate and conservation finance, the Sprint emphasized practical, scalable solutions for incorporating ecosystem services into climate projects. This Climate Sprint resulted in the Core Benefits Label. ### Common Asset Trust Common Asset Trust is a governance mechanism designed to manage common-pool resources, such as forests, fisheries, or water bodies, in a sustainable and equitable manner. CATs are informed by Ostrom's principles of collective action and self-governance, which emphasize the role of local communities and resource users in making and enforcing rules for resource management. ### Common Pool Resources Common Pool Resources are resources collectively owned or accessed by a group, where one person's use diminishes what's available to others. CPRs include resources like fisheries and forests. Effective management often involves local communities creating rules for sustainable use and distribution, as highlighted by Elinor Ostrom's research. ### Conservation Finance Conservation Finance the strategic and innovative use of financial mechanisms and instruments to support the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources, biodiversity, and ecosystems. This field blends financial strategies with conservation goals to secure funding for initiatives that protect and restore the environment. Conservation finance encompasses a wide range of approaches, including public and private investments, impact investing, environmental markets, eco-tourism, and the development of financial tools like green bonds and payment for ecosystem services programs. The primary objective of conservation finance is to generate sustainable funding streams for conservation efforts while promoting biodiversity conservation, habitat restoration, and the sustainable use of natural resources. It plays a crucial role in addressing pressing environmental challenges and achieving long-term ecological and societal benefits. ### Core Benefits Label Based on the 2021 [Co-Benefits Climate Sprint](#co-benefits-climate-sprint) which set out to answer "**How can we best value long-term co-benefits and ecosystem services when mobilizing climate finance?",** the Core Benefits Label aimed to make the valuation of ecosystem services and co-benefits in climate finance more understandable and actionable. It detailed efforts by a diverse team to value long-term co-benefits for net-zero companies and stakeholders through a "Climate Sprint" approach for rapid, collaborative development. The concept of a "Core Benefits Label," similar to nutrition labels, was proposed to assist investors in identifying climate projects with significant ecological and social impacts, aiming to improve how such projects are evaluated for their broader benefits beyond carbon reduction. ### Costanza, Robert Robert Costanza is a notable ecological economist and environmental scientist who has made significant contributions to the field of ecological economics. His work focuses on the valuation of ecosystem services, the redefinition of traditional economic indicators to include ecological and social dimensions in assessments of well-being, and the promotion of interdisciplinary approaches to address sustainability challenges. Costanza's advocacy for the recognition of natural capital value and his leadership in advancing ecological economics have had a profound impact on the fields of economics, environmental science, and sustainability. ### Critical habitat Any area of the planet with high biodiversity conservation significance, based on the existence of habitat of significant importance to critically endangered or endangered species, restricted range or endemic species, globally significant concentrations of migratory and/or congregatory species, highly threatened and/or unique ecosystems and key evolutionary processes. *TNFD; IFC* ### Cumulative impact A change in the state of nature (direct or indirect) that occurs due to the interaction of activities of different actors operating in a landscape. *TNFD* ## D ### **DAO (Decentralized Autonomous Organization)** A DAO operates as a blockchain-based form of organization or company governed by smart contracts, eliminating the need for traditional management structures. DAOs are democratic systems where decisions are made through member voting, ensuring transparency and direct stakeholder control. This structure enables decentralized decision-making and management, making DAOs ideal for collaborative projects, investment funds, and community-led initiatives. DAOs represent a shift towards more open, equitable, and efficient ways of organizing collective efforts and resources. ### Dasgupta Review The Dasgupta Review, officially titled the "Review on the Economics of Biodiversity," is a comprehensive report led by economist Sir Partha Dasgupta and published in 2021. Commissioned by the UK government, it assesses the economic implications of biodiversity loss and the decline of natural capital. This review underscores the profound connection between nature, economics, and human well-being. It emphasizes the vital role of natural capital, which includes ecosystems and biodiversity, as one of the three types of capital crucial for economic prosperity, alongside human capital and produced capital. The report highlights that the degradation of natural capital poses significant risks to economies and societies globally. Key takeaways from the Dasgupta Review include the urgent need to account for natural capital in economic decision-making, adopt sustainable economic models, and prioritize investments in nature conservation and restoration. By recognizing the value of nature as a vital component of our economic infrastructure, the review calls for transformative changes in how we perceive, manage, and invest in natural resources. ### de Groot, Rudolph Rudolph de Groot is a notable figure in the field of ecosystem services and environmental economics. He is recognized for his contributions to the valuation and assessment of ecosystem services and for promoting their integration into decision-making processes. De Groot's work focuses on assigning economic values to the benefits provided by natural ecosystems and advocating for the incorporation of ecosystem service assessments into land use planning, policy development, and resource management. His interdisciplinary approach and leadership have influenced the understanding of the ecological and economic dimensions of environmental challenges, with practical applications in environmental management, conservation, and sustainable development. ### DeFi DeFi stands for Decentralized Finance, a blockchain-based financial system that offers traditional financial services such as lending, borrowing, trading, and asset management without relying on traditional intermediaries like banks. Instead, it utilizes smart contracts and decentralized applications (dApps) to enable peer-to-peer transactions, making financial services more accessible, transparent, and open to a global audience. DeFi has gained prominence in the cryptocurrency space for its potential to disrupt traditional finance and increase financial inclusion. ### Dependencies Aspects of ecosystem services that an organisation or other actor relies on to function. Dependencies include ecosystems' ability to regulate water flow, water quality, and hazards like fires and floods; provide a suitable habitat for pollinators (who in turn provide a service directly to economies), and sequester carbon (in terrestrial, freshwater and marine realms). *TNFD; SBTN* ### Dependency pathway A dependency pathway shows how a particular business activity depends upon specific features of natural capital. It identifies how observed or potential changes in natural capital affect the costs and/or benefits of doing business. *TNFD; Natural Capital Protocol* ### Direct impacts A change in the state of nature caused by a business activity with a direct causal link. *TNFD* ## Drivers of nature change All external factors that affect nature, anthropogenic assets, nature's contributions to people and good quality of life. They include institutions and governance systems and other indirect drivers, and direct drivers (both natural and anthropogenic). *TNFD; IPBES* ## E ### Ecocredit In the Regen Network, an "ecocredit" represents a digital certificate issued for specific ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration or biodiversity conservation, verified by the network. These credits are created to incentivize and quantify ecological regeneration and conservation efforts. They can be bought, traded, and retired by individuals and organizations looking to offset their carbon footprint, invest in sustainable practices, or meet climate commitments. The system provides a transparent, blockchain-based platform for valuing and transacting in ecosystem services, contributing to global environmental sustainability goals. ### Ecological / habitat connectivity The degree to which the landscape facilitates the movement of organisms (animals, plant reproductive structures, pollen, pollinators, spores, etc.) and other environmentally important resources (e.g. nutrients and moisture) between similar habitats. Connectivity is hampered by fragmentation. *TNFD; IPBES* ### Ecological Economics Ecological economics is an interdisciplinary field that integrates principles from economics and ecology to address sustainability challenges. It emphasizes long-term well-being, recognizes the interconnectedness of economic and ecological systems, values ecosystem services, considers ethical and social aspects, and provides guidance for sustainable resource management and environmental policy development. Ecological economics aims to balance economic goals with the preservation of finite natural resources and ecosystems. ### Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and the non-living environment, interacting as a functional unit. *CBD; IPBES; TNFD* ### Ecosystem Accounting Ecosystem accounting is a specialized form of environmental accounting that focuses on the measurement and valuation of ecosystem services provided by natural ecosystems. It involves systematically assessing the contributions of ecosystems to the economy and human well-being. Ecosystem accounting quantifies the various benefits that ecosystems offer, such as clean water, pollination, carbon sequestration, and habitat provision. By integrating this information into economic frameworks, ecosystem accounting helps policymakers and businesses make informed decisions that balance economic development with the sustainable use and conservation of ecosystems. ### Ecosystem Asset A form of environmental assets that relate to diverse ecosystems. These are contiguous spaces of a specific ecosystem type characterised by a distinct set of biotic and abiotic components and their interactions. *SEEA; TNFD* ### Ecosystem Condition The quality of an ecosystem measured by its abiotic and biotic characteristics. Condition is assessed by an ecosystem's composition, structure and function which, in turn, underpins the ecological integrity of the ecosystem, and supports its capacity to supply ecosystem services on an ongoing basis. *SEEA; TNFD* ### Ecosystem function The flow of energy and materials through the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. This includes many processes such as biomass production, trophic transfer through plants and animals, nutrient cycling, water dynamics and heat transfer. *TNFD; IPBES* ### Ecosystem health Used to describe the condition of an ecosystem, by analogy with human health. Note that there is no universally accepted benchmark for a healthy ecosystem. Rather, the apparent health status of an ecosystem can vary, depending upon which metrics are employed to assess it and which societal aspirations are driving the assessment. *TNFD; IPBES* ### Ecosystem Services The contributions of ecosystems to the benefits that are used in economic and other human activity. *SEEA; TNFD* ### Ecosystem Services Value (ESV) ESV represents the assessed worth, whether in monetary or non-monetary terms, assigned to the advantages supplied by ecosystems to human well-being and the environment. ESV encompasses an array of services delivered by ecosystems, including clean water provision, pollination, climate regulation, and cultural or recreational experiences. [RealValue](/realvalue/why-put-a-value-on-nature) is based on ESV's. ### Ecosystem Type Ecosystem type refers to a specific category or classification of ecosystems based on common ecological characteristics, such as vegetation, climate, and predominant species composition. These classifications help scientists, conservationists, and policymakers understand and describe different types of ecosystems, their functions, and their role in the environment. Ecosystem types may include forests, grasslands, wetlands, deserts, and aquatic ecosystems, among others. Categorizing ecosystems into types aids in the study, management, and conservation of natural environments by providing a framework for analysis and decision-making. ### Ecotone Ecotones are places where ecosystems grade into each other along a gradient in one or more resources or environmental controls. A typical example is the transition from forest to grassland on a gradient of moisture availability. The precise location of ecosystem types, and hence the ecotones between them is ultimately subjective. Where these gradients are very gentle, ecotones can occupy quite extensive areas. The translation of gradients and ecotones on ecosystem classification will depend on the nature and ‘sharpness’ of the transition, and the scale of application. *SEEA EA* ### Endangered Species Species considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. *IUCN; TNFD* ### Environmental Accounting Environmental accounting is a specialized field that integrates environmental data and indicators into economic accounting frameworks. It systematically measures and quantifies the interactions between the environment and the economy. Environmental accounting assesses the value of natural resources, monitors environmental assets, analyzes the environmental impacts of economic activities, and informs sustainable development and resource management decisions. ### Environmental Asset The naturally occurring living and non-living components of the Earth, together constituting the biophysical environment, which may provide benefits to humanity. *SEEA; TNFD* ### **EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine)** A core component of the Ethereum blockchain, the EVM is a decentralized virtual computing engine enabling the execution of smart contracts. It allows for applications to run exactly as programmed without downtime, censorship, fraud, or external interference, in a secure and isolated environment. Smart contracts, written in high-level programming languages, are compiled into bytecode executed by the EVM across the decentralized Ethereum network, ensuring integrity and security of operations. ### ERC-1155 ERC-1155 is a remarkably versatile Ethereum token standard that revolutionizes the world of digital assets by combining the features of both fungible and non-fungible tokens (NFTs), including Semi-Fungible Tokens (SFTs), within a single smart contract. This innovative standard, introduced as an Ethereum Improvement Proposal (EIP), empowers developers to craft a diverse range of tokens, including unique, one-of-a-kind items (NFTs), tokens with partial fungibility (SFTs), and fully interchangeable tokens (FTs), all coexisting harmoniously within a unified smart contract. In practical terms, ERC-1155 offers unparalleled adaptability and efficiency, making it exceptionally well-suited for applications and games where users engage with a wide array of assets. Some of these assets possess individual uniqueness and value (NFTs), some exhibit partial fungibility for specific use cases (SFTs), while others can be readily exchanged like traditional currencies (FTs). By consolidating these token types into a single smart contract, ERC-1155 streamlines operations, reduces gas consumption, and enhances the overall performance of decentralized applications. This groundbreaking standard has gained widespread acclaim in blockchain-based gaming, digital collectibles platforms, and beyond. ERC-1155 fundamentally transforms the landscape of digital asset management on the Ethereum blockchain, fostering the creation of intricate, dynamic token ecosystems that cater to a multitude of use cases within the burgeoning NFT ecosystem. ### ERC-721 ERC-721 is a standard for non-fungible tokens (NFTs) on the Ethereum blockchain. NFTs are unique digital assets representing ownership or proof of authenticity of specific items or digital content, such as digital art, collectibles, virtual real estate, and more. Unlike cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin or Ethereum, which are fungible and interchangeable, each ERC-721 token is distinct and cannot be exchanged on a one-to-one basis with other tokens. ERC-721 tokens have gained widespread use in blockchain-based applications and platforms that require secure and transparent management of ownership and provenance for digital or physical assets. They have fueled the growth of the NFT market, enabling the creation, trade, and ownership verification of a diverse array of unique digital assets. ### ESRI ESRI, or the Environmental Systems Research Institute, is a prominent global provider of geographic information system (GIS) software, tools, and solutions. ESRI's GIS technology is widely used in various industries, including environmental management, urban planning, natural resource conservation, and more. Their software, such as ArcGIS, enables organizations to capture, analyze, and visualize spatial data to make informed decisions and solve complex spatial problems. ESRI plays a crucial role in advancing the use of geospatial technology for understanding and addressing environmental and geographical challenges. ### ESVD The ESVD, short for Ecosystem Services Valuation Database, is a resource that compiles information related to the valuation of ecosystem services. It encompasses over 4,000 studies and data sources that quantify the economic and non-economic values provided by ecosystems, helping researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders better understand and assess the importance of these services for decision-making and sustainable resource management. ### Ethereum Ethereum is a decentralized blockchain platform known for its smart contract capabilities and decentralized applications (dApps). It uses Ether (ETH) as its native cryptocurrency. Ethereum's programmable environment enables the creation of trustless, automated agreements (smart contracts) and various decentralized applications. It's a fundamental technology in DeFi, NFTs, and the broader blockchain ecosystem. ### Externalities Externalities are a key concept in economics and refer to the unintended effects of economic activities that spill over to impact individuals or groups who were not directly involved in those activities. These effects can be either positive or negative. Negative externalities, such as environmental pollution or noise disturbances from industrial operations, impose costs on society, often without the responsible parties fully accounting for them. Conversely, positive externalities, like education or healthcare, can provide benefits to society beyond those directly participating. Externalities can lead to market inefficiencies, as they are not reflected in the prices of goods or services, prompting the need for government intervention through regulation, taxation, or incentives to correct these market failures and promote more equitable and sustainable outcomes for both individuals and the broader community. ## F ## G ### **GICS (Global Industry Classification Standard)** Developed jointly by MSCI and Standard & Poor's, GICS is a comprehensive industry classification system that categorizes companies into sectors, industry groups, industries, and sub-industries. It is widely used in the financial sector for portfolio management, research, and market analysis. ## H ### Half Earth The "Half Earth" concept, proposed by biologist E.O. Wilson, suggests that to safeguard Earth's biodiversity and ecological health, we should set aside and protect at least half of the planet's terrestrial and marine ecosystems for conservation purposes. The idea is to designate these areas as protected reserves, free from significant human interference, to preserve a wide range of species and their habitats. By dedicating 50% of the Earth's land and oceans to conservation, the "Half Earth" concept aims to mitigate the ongoing loss of biodiversity, protect ecosystems, and ensure the long-term survival of countless species. This ambitious goal underscores the importance of prioritizing conservation efforts and adopting sustainable practices to address the interconnected challenges of biodiversity loss and habitat degradation. ## I ### **ICB** see [ICB](/appendix/ecosystem-services-dependencies-and-risks/industry-classifications#icb-industry-classification-benchmark) ### **ISIC 4** see [ISIC 4](/appendix/ecosystem-services-dependencies-and-risks/industry-classifications#isic-4-international-standard-industrial-classification-of-all-economic-activities-revision-4) ### Instrumental Value associated with an entity that serves to achieve a human end, interest or preference. Instrumental value includes economic values, regardless whether the entity is directly or indirectly used, or not used (existence and bequest values). *IPBES (2019), Global assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Brondízio, E. S., Settele, J., Díaz, S., Ngo, H. T. (eds). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 1144 pages. ISBN: 978-3-947851-20-1* ### Intrinsic Value the value of an entity (e.g., an organism, an ecological process) independent of how it relates to humans. *IPBES (2019), Global assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Brondízio, E. S., Settele, J., Díaz, S., Ngo, H. T. (eds). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 1144 pages. ISBN: 978-3-947851-20-1* ## J ## K ## L ## M ## N ### **NACE Rev. 2 (Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community)** NACE Rev. 2 is the European standard for classifying economic activities, offering a system to categorize entities based on their business operations. It is essential for statistical analysis, policy-making, and economic studies within the EU. ### NAICS see [NAICS](/appendix/ecosystem-services-dependencies-and-risks/industry-classifications#naics-north-american-industry-classification-system) ## O ### Ostrom, Elinor Elinor Ostrom was a distinguished American political economist and scholar known for her groundbreaking work on the governance of common-pool resources and collective action. In 2009, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences for her pioneering research in this field. Ostrom's work challenged the traditional view that common-pool resources are prone to overuse and depletion, demonstrating that communities can effectively manage shared resources through self-governance and cooperation. Her research highlighted the importance of local knowledge, well-defined rules, and social institutions in achieving sustainable resource management. Elinor Ostrom's work has had a profound impact on the fields of environmental economics, resource management, and sustainable development. ## P ## Q ## R ### **Relational Value** the meaningfulness of relationships, including the relationships among humans and nature and among humans, including across generations, via nature (Chan et al., 2016). These values are attached to the entity itself in ways that make it not substitutable, hence not serving an instrumental or utilitarian perspective (O’Neill, 2017), and represent what people consider meaningful about nature (e.g., attachment, responsibility, commitment). Relational values can also be associated with relationships with nature towards achieving a good life, e.g., when choosing “the right thing to do” or in the context of a “meaningful life.” (Pascual et al., 2017). *IPBES (2019), Global assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Brondízio, E. S., Settele, J., Díaz, S., Ngo, H. T. (eds). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 1144 pages. ISBN: 978-3-947851-20-1* ### **RWA x ReFi Report** Funded by the Climate Collective, this report delves into merging Real World Assets (RWA) with Regenerative Finance (ReFi) to foster ecological and social impacts via web3 and blockchain technologies. It outlines the potential for a new regenerative asset ownership and governance system, confronting legal, technological, and financial hurdles. Advocating for open-source development, legal clarity, and active community engagement, it highlights key contributors to the evolving RWA and ReFi landscape. Published on February 16th, 2023, it is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license. More details on the project: [RWA x ReFi](/dossier/other-projects/rwa-x-refi-report) ## S ### **SASB (Sustainability Accounting Standards Board** SASB provides industry-specific standards for reporting sustainability information relevant to financial performance. It identifies sustainability topics that are likely to affect financial condition or operating performance and provides standardized disclosure recommendations. ### **SEED Biocomplexity** A standardized biodiversity index developed by Crowther Lab at ETH Zürich, measuring the complexity of nature on a 0-1 scale. It evaluates **Genetic diversity within species**, **Species diversity between species**, and **Ecosystem diversity across ecosystems**. This framework provides a comprehensive approach to quantify and assess the global biodiversity, facilitating informed decision-making for conservation, restoration, and sustainable management of natural resources by comparing [biocomplexity](#biocomplexity) against reference ecosystems to understand ecological health impacts. ### Stacking Stacking refers to the practice of accumulating various funding sources or payments from different stakeholders to support a specific ecosystem service or environmental benefit. It involves aggregating financial incentives to enhance the financial sustainability of conservation or restoration projects, allowing for more substantial environmental outcomes. Stacking Example: A forest conservation project secures funding from various sources: a government for carbon sequestration, a foundation for biodiversity, and a water utility for water purification. Related: [Bundling](#bundling) ## T ### **TRBC** see [TRBC](/appendix/ecosystem-services-dependencies-and-risks/industry-classifications#trbc-thomson-reuters-business-classification) ## U ## V ## W ## X ## Y ## Z # Land Cover Classification & Ecosystem Typologies {% hint style="info" %} The [BASIN Ecosystems](/core-benefits/core-benefits-framework/stocks-ecosystems) land cover and ecosystem typology and [RealValue](/realvalue/why-put-a-value-on-nature) was built based on the process and supporting materials found in this Appendix. {% endhint %} We evaluated [27 primary source](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vQwj56Qg699KpORHt_jm3YA43PAvEbwJuETykHpRhxM7YQ0ErbGIKcPZ0bc0a6R3mQlLx4rDGNTPCSy/pubhtml?gid=1103807035\&single=true) Land Cover and Ecosystem Typologies, focusing on their relevance to Ecosystem Service Valuation (ESV), real assets, and corporate financial and Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) disclosures. From these, we selected the 7 typologies that are most applicable to our specific use case, giving additional weight to IUCN GET 2.0, ESVD, and FEMA ESV. These were prioritized because they are either based on seminal environmental assessments and frameworks (e.g., Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, TEEB, IUCN Red Lists) or specifically designed to facilitate Ecosystem Services Valuation. The selected data was cross-referenced to develop the **BASIN Ecosystems** which identifies fourteen distinct ecosystem types. ### Cross Reference Table {% embed url="" fullWidth="true" %} Source: [BASIN RealValue Worksheet - PUBLIC](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1-Ho1C5J2TCFnSJnkSbNXvBldMIUZGZyll3e6kSwazT4/edit?usp=sharing) {% endembed %} ## Scope and Methodological Notes Our research primarily targets terrestrial restoration and conservation, deliberately setting aside open and deep-sea ecosystems. Although our scope is land-centric, the RealValue model's techniques are adaptable to marine environments. For more specialized marine ecosystem valuations, please consult the [BlueValue](https://www.bluevalue.org/) database. # Ecosystem Classification Frameworks # IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology 2.0 (IUCN GET 2.0) The [IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology 2.0](https://global-ecosystems.org/) offers a structured classification system that categorizes ecosystems based on their ecological functions and species assemblages. BASIN honed in on Levels 2 and 3, the system identifies "Functional Biomes" and "Ecosystem Functional Groups" as critical components within broader realms like terrestrial, freshwater, and marine. Functional Biomes share major ecological drivers that regulate key functions, while Ecosystem Functional Groups within these biomes share common drivers that lead to similar biotic traits. This hierarchical framework is essential for understanding the traits and drivers that underlie ecosystem functionality, thus aiding in ecosystem management and conservation efforts. This classification is crucial given the human influence on ecosystems, many of which are at risk of collapse, impacting biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being. {% hint style="info" %} SEEA EA, TNFD, and IUCN Red List utilize and reference IUCN GET 2.0 {% endhint %} ## Realms, Biomes, and Ecosystem Functional Groups ### Terrestrial #### T1 Tropical-subtropical forests * T1.1 Tropical-subtropical lowland rainforests * T1.2 Tropical-subtropical dry forests and thickets * T1.3 Tropical-subtropical montane rainforests * T1.4 Tropical heath forests #### T2 Temperate-boreal forests & woodlands * T2.1 Boreal and temperate high montane forests and woodlands * T2.2 Deciduous temperate forests * T2.3 Oceanic cool temperate rainforests * T2.4 Warm temperate laurophyll forests * T2.5 Temperate pyric humid forests #### T3 Shrublands & shrubby woodlands * T3.1 Seasonally dry tropical shrublands * T3.2 Seasonally dry temperate heaths and shrublands * T3.3 Cool temperate heathlands * T3.4 Rocky pavements, screes and lava flows #### T4 Savannas and grasslands * T4.1 Trophic savannas * T4.2 Pyric tussock savannas * T4.3 Hummock savannas * T4.4 Temperate woodlands * T4.5 Temperate subhumid grasslands #### T5 Deserts and semi-deserts * T5.1 Semi-desert steppes * T5.2 Thorny deserts and semi-deserts * T5.3 Sclerophyll hot deserts and semi-deserts * T5.4 Cool deserts and semi-deserts * T5.5 Hyper-arid deserts #### T6 Polar-alpine * T6.1 Ice sheets, glaciers and perennial snowfields * T6.2 Polar-alpine rocky outcrops * T6.3 Polar tundra and deserts * T6.4 Temperate alpine grasslands and shrublands * T6.5 Tropical alpine grasslands and shrublands #### T7 Intensive land-use systems * T7.1 Annual croplands * T7.2 Sown pastures and fields * T7.3 Plantations * T7.4 Urban and industrial ecosystems * T7.5 Derived semi-natural pastures and oldfields ### Subterranean #### S1 Subterranean lithic systems * S1.1 Aerobic caves * S1.2 Endolithic systems * S2.1 Anthropogenic subterranean voids #### SF1 Subterranean freshwaters * SF1.1 Underground streams and pools * SF1.2 Groundwater ecosystems #### SF2 Anthropogenic subterranean freshwater * SF2.1 Water pipes and subterranean canals * SF2.2 Flooded mines and other voids #### SM1 Subterranean tidal systems * SM3.1 Anchialine caves * SM3.2 Anchialine pools * SM3.1 Sea caves ### Wetlands #### TF1 Palustrine wetlands * TF1.1 Tropical flooded forests and peat forests * TF1.2 Subtropical/temperate forested wetlands * TF1.3 Permanent marshes * TF1.4 Seasonal floodplain marshes * TF1.5 Episodic arid floodplains * TF1.6 Boreal, temperate and montane peat bogs * TF1.7 Boreal and temperate fens #### F1 Rivers and streams * F1.1 Permanent upland streams * F1.2 Permanent lowland rivers * F1.3 Freeze-thaw rivers and streams * F1.4 Seasonal upland streams * F1.5 Seasonal lowland rivers * F1.6 Episodic arid rivers * F1.7 Large lowland rivers #### F2 Lakes * F2.1 Large permanent freshwater lakes * F2.2 Small permanent freshwater lakes * F2.3 Seasonal freshwater lakes * F2.4 Freeze-thaw freshwater lakes * F2.5 Ephemeral freshwater lakes * F2.6 Permanent salt and soda lakes * F2.7 Ephemeral salt lakes * F2.8 Artesian springs and oases * F2.9 Geothermal pools and wetlands * F2.10 Subglacial lakes #### F3 Artificial fresh waters * F3.1 Large reservoirs * F3.2 Constructed lacustrine wetlands * F3.3 Rice paddies * F3.4 Freshwater aquafarms * F3.5 Canals, ditches and drains #### FM1 Semi-confined transitional waters * FM1.1 Deepwater coastal inlets * FM1.2 Permanently open riverine estuaries and bays * FM1.3 Intermittently closed and open lakes and lagoons ### Marine #### M Marine shelves * M1.1 Seagrass meadows * M1.2 Kelp forests * M1.3 Photic coral reefs * M1.4 Shellfish beds and reefs * M1.5 Photo-limited marine animal forests * M1.6 Subtidal rocky reefs * M1.7 Subtidal sand beds * M1.8 Subtidal mud plains * M1.9 Upwelling zones #### M2 Pelagic ocean waters * M2.1 Epipelagic ocean waters * M2.2 Mesopelagic ocean waters * M2.3 Bathypelagic ocean waters * M2.4 Abyssopelagic ocean waters * M2.5 Sea ice #### M3 Deep sea floors * M3.1 Continental and island slopes * M3.2 Marine canyons * M3.3 Abyssal plains * M3.4 Seamounts, ridges and plateaus * M3.5 Deepwater biogenic beds * M3.6 Hadal trenches and troughs * M3.7 Chemosynthetically-based ecosystems #### M4 Anthropogenic marine systems * M4.1 Submerged artificial structures * M4.2 Marine aquafarms ### Shoreline Systems #### MT1 Shoreline systems * MT1.1 Rocky shores * MT1.2 Muddy shores * MT1.3 Sandy shores * MT1.4 Boulder and cobble shores #### MT2 Supralittoral coastal systems * MT2.1 Coastal shrublands and grasslands #### MT3 Anthropogenic shorelines * MT3.1 Artificial shores #### MFT1 Brackish tidal systems * MFT1.1 Coastal river deltas * MFT1.2 Intertidal forests and shrublands * MFT1.3 Coastal saltmarshes and reedbeds # Ecosystem Services Valuation Database (ESVD) Original Publication: [Final report June 2020](https://www.es-partnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ESVD_Global-Update-FINAL-Report-June-2020.pdf) The Ecosystem Services Valuation Database (ESVD) aims to support informed decision-making in ecosystem management by providing robust, monetized data on the economic benefits and costs of ecosystems and biodiversity. The database currently holds 9,500 value records from more than 1,100 studies, covering various biomes and geographic regions. By presenting these values in monetary terms, the ESVD helps internalize the significance of nature in policy and management decisions. The ESVD is a follow-up to the “The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity” (TEEB) database which contained over 1,300 data points from 267 case studies on monetary values of ecosystem services across all biomes. ## Ecosystems and Land Cover {% hint style="info" %} Based off of TEEB biomes. {% endhint %} ### **Open sea/ocean** * Shelf sea / neritic zone * Deep sea / Abyssal zone * Pelagic zone (up to 200 m deep) * Other (sea/ocean) ### **Coral reefs** * Barrier reefs * Atolls * Fringing reefs * Patch reefs * Other (coral reefs) ### **Coastal systems (incl wetlands)** * Sand dunes, beaches, rocky shores * Tidal marshes * Salt marshes * Mangroves * Lagoons * Estuaries * Unvegetated sediment * Shellfish reefs * Seagrass beds * Kelp forests * Other (coastal systems) ### **Inland wetlands** * Swamps, marshes * Peatland, Non-forested * Peatland, Forested * Peatland, Tropical * Peatland, Boreal Wetlands, * Forested (on alluvial soils) * Wetlands, Groundwater-dependent * Floodplains * Other (inland wetlands) ### **Rivers and lakes** * Rivers * Lakes, freshwater * Lakes, saltwater * Human made water bodies * Other (rivers and lakes) ### **Tropical forests** * Tropical rain forest * Tropical dry forest * Tropical cloud forests * Other (tropical forests) ### **Temperate forests** * Temperate rain or evergreen forest * Temperate deciduous forest * Boreal/coniferous forest (‘Taiga’) * Other (temperate forests) ### **Woodland & Shrubland** * Tropical wood-& shrublands * Mediterranean wood-& shrubland * Temperate wood-& shrubland * Heathland * Other (woodland and shrubland) ### **Grass-/Rangeland** * Savanna * Tropical grasslands * Temperate grasslands * Steppe (dry, cold grassland) * Other (grassland) ### **Desert** * True desert (sand/rock/salt) * Semi-desert * Other (desert) ### **Tundra** * Alpine Tundra * Arctic Tundra * Other (tundra) ### **High mountain & Polar systems** * High Mountain - forest * High Mountain - grassland * High Mountain - snow and ice * Polar Other (high mountains and polar) ### **Inland Un- or Sparsely Vegetated** * Underground systems * Inland rock formations * Other (inland un- or sparsely vegetated) ### **Cultivated areas** * Cropland (arable land) * Pastures * Orchards/agro-forestry * Plantations * Rice paddies, etc * Aquaculture * Small landscape elements * Other (cultivated areas) ### **Urban Green and Blue Infrastructure** * Urban Parks & Forests * Lawns, sports fields, golf courses * Urban lakes, ponds, wetlands * Cultivated areas * (Street) Trees & Shrubs * Other (urban green-blue) ### **Other** * Other # FEMA Ecosystem Service Value Updates Original Publication: [June 2022 ](https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_ecosystem-service-value-updates_2022.pdf) FEMA has updated its approach to hazard mitigation by incorporating Ecosystem Service Values (ESV) into its Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA) Toolkit, measured in terms of dollars per acre per year ($/ac/yr). These updates extend across nine different land cover and ecosystem types and 14 categories of ecosystem services. The inclusion of ESV not only makes the toolkit more comprehensive but also simplifies the application process for subapplicants seeking to implement Nature-Based Solutions (NBS). Recent policy changes have expanded eligible NBS activities and eliminated previous benefit-cost ratio requirements, making it easier for projects focused on ecological benefits to receive funding. This marks a shift towards more sustainable and equitable hazard mitigation strategies. ## Ecosystems and Land Cover * Forest * Urban Green Open Space * Rural Green Open Space * Riparian * Coastal Wetlands * Inland Wetlands * Coral Reefs * Shellfish Reefs * Beaches & Dunes
 # IUCN Red List Habitat Classification The [IUCN Red List Habitat Classification](https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/habitat-classification-scheme) serves as a unified framework used by both the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems. Established in 1964, the Red List of Threatened Species is the world's most comprehensive source on the extinction risk of animals, fungi, and plants, and is an essential indicator of global biodiversity health. The newer Red List of Ecosystems assesses ecosystems' conservation statuses based on factors like risk of collapse and geographical distribution changes. Both lists employ the IUCN Red List Habitat Classification for standardizing habitat descriptions and the Red List of Ecosystems also uses the IUCN Global Ecosystem Taxonomy 2.0 for further classification. These tools offer rigorous, evidence-based analyses, assisting a diverse range of stakeholders—from government agencies to NGOs—in making informed decisions for biodiversity conservation and policy action. ## Habitat Classification ### 1 Forest 1.1. Forest Boreal 1.2. Forest Subarctic 1.3. Forest Subantarctic 1.4. Forest Temperate 1.5. Forest Subtropical/tropical dry 1.6. Forest Subtropical/tropical moist lowland 1.7. Forest Subtropical/tropical mangrove vegetation above high tide level 1.8. Forest Subtropical/tropical swamp 1.9. Forest Subtropical/tropical moist montane ### 2 Savanna 2.1. Savanna Dry 2.2. Savanna Moist ### 3 Shrubland 3.1. Shrubland Subarctic 3.2. Shrubland Subantarctic 3.3. Shrubland Boreal 3.4. Shrubland Temperate 3.5. Shrubland Subtropical/tropical dry 3.6. Shrubland Subtropical/tropical moist 3.7. Shrubland Subtropical/tropical high altitude 3.8. Shrubland Mediterranean-type shrubby vegatation ### 4 Grassland 4.1. Grassland Tundra 4.2. Grassland Subarctic 4.3. Grassland Subantarctic 4.4. Grassland Temperature 4.5. Grassland Subtropical/tropical dry 4.6. Grassland Subtropical/tropical seasonally wet/flooded 4.7. Grassland Subtropical/tropical high altitude ### 5 Wetlands (inland) 5.1. Wetlands (inland) Permanent rivers/streams/creeks (includes waterfalls) 5.2. Wetlands (inland) Seasonal/intermittent/irregular rivers/streams/creeks 5.3. Wetlands (inland) Shrub dominated wetlands 5.4. Wetlands (inland) Bogs, marshes, swamps, fens, peatlands 5.5. Wetlands (inland) Permanent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha) 5.6. Wetlands (inland) Seasonal/intermittent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha) 5.7. Wetlands (inland) Permanent freshwater marshes/pools (under 8 ha) 5.8. Wetlands (inland) Seasonal/intermittent freshwater marshes/pools (under 8 ha) 5.9. Wetlands (inland) Freshwater springs and oases 5.10. Wetlands (inland) Tundra wetlands (inc. pools and temporary waters from snowmelt) 5.11. Wetlands (inland) Alpine wetlands (inc. temporary waters from snowmelt) 5.12. Wetlands (inland) Geothermal wetlands 5.13. Wetlands (inland) Permanent inland deltas 5.14. Wetlands (inland) Permanent saline, brackish or alkaline lakes 5.15. Wetlands (inland) Seasonal/intermittent saline, brackish or alkaline lakes and flats 5.16. Wetlands (inland) Permanent saline, brackish or alkaline marshes/pools 5.17. Wetlands (inland) Seasonal/intermittent saline, brackish or alkaline marshes/pools 5.18. Wetlands (inland) Karst and other subterranean hydrological systems (inland) ### 6 Rocky Areas (e.g., inland cliffs, mountain peaks) ### 7 Caves & Subterranean Habitats (non-aquatic) 7.1. Caves and Subterranean Habitats (non-aquatic) Caves 7.2. Caves and Subterranean Habitats (non-aquatic) Other subterranean habitats ### 8 Desert 8.1. Desert Hot 8.2. Desert Temperate 8.3. Desert Cold ### 9 Marine Neritic 9.1. Marine Neritic Pelagic 9.2. Marine Neritic Subtidal rock and rocky reefs 9.3. Marine Neritic Subtidal loose rock/pebble/gravel 9.4. Marine Neritic Subtidal sandy 9.5. Marine Neritic Subtidal sandy-mud 9.6. Marine Neritic Subtidal muddy 9.7. Marine Neritic Macroalgal/kelp 9.8. Marine Neritic Coral Reef 9.8.1 Outer reef channel 9.8.2. Back slope 9.8.3. Foreslope (outer reef slope) 9.8.4. Lagoon 9.8.5. Inter-reef soft substrate 9.8.6. Inter-reef rubble substrate 9.9. Seagrass (Submerged) 9.10. Estuaries ### 10 Marine Oceanic 10.1 Epipelagic (0–200 m) 10.2 Mesopelagic (200–1,000 m) 10.3 Bathypelagic (1,000–4,000 m) 10.4 Abyssopelagic (4,000–6,000 m) ### 11 Marine Deep Ocean Floor (Benthic and Demersal) 11.1 Continental Slope/Bathyl Zone (200–4,000 m) 11.1.1 Hard Substrate 11.1.2 Soft Substrate 11.2 Abyssal Plain (4,000–6,000 m) 11.3 Abyssal Mountain/Hills (4,000–6,000 m) 11.4 Hadal/Deep Sea Trench (\\>6,000 m) 11.5 Seamount 11.6 Deep Sea Vents (Rifts/Seeps) ### 12 Marine Interdal 12.1 Rocky Shoreline 12.2 Sandy Shoreline and/or Beaches, Sand Bars, Spits, etc. 12.3 Shingle and/or Pebble Shoreline and/or Beaches 12.4 Mud Shoreline and Intertidal Mud Flats 12.5 Salt Marshes (Emergent Grasses) 12.6 Tidepools 12.7 Mangrove Submerged Roots ### 13 Marine Coastal/Supratidal 13.1 Sea Cliffs and Rocky Offshore Islands 13.2 Coastal Caves/Karst 13.3 Coastal Sand Dunes 13.4 Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes 13.5 Coastal Freshwater Lakes ### 14 Artificial - Terrestrial 14.1 Arable Land 14.2 Pastureland 14.3 Plantations 14.4 Rural Gardens 14.5 Urban Areas 14.6 Subtropical/Tropical Heavily Degraded Former Forest ### 15 Artificial - Aquatic 15.1 Water Storage Areas \[over 8 ha]\(#) 15.2 Ponds \[below 8 ha]\(#) 15.3 Aquaculture Ponds 15.4 Salt Exploitation Sites 15.5 Excavations (open) 15.6 Wastewater Treatment Areas 15.7 Irrigated Land \[includes irrigation channels]\(#) 15.8 Seasonally Flooded Agricultural Land 15.9 Canals and Drainage Channels, Ditches 15.10 Karst and Other Subterranean Hydrological Systems \[human-made]\(#) 15.11 Marine Anthropogenic Structures 15.12 Mariculture Cages 15.13 Mari/Brackish-culture Ponds ### 16 Introduced Vegetation ### 17 Other ### 18 Unknown # ESRI Land Cover The [ESRI Land Cover project](https://livingatlas.arcgis.com/landcover/) offers an annual high-resolution map of Earth's land surface from 2017-2022, created using advanced AI land classification models. These models utilize a vast dataset of human-labeled image pixels and were applied to over 2 million Earth observations from Sentinel-2's six spectral bands. The maps, which feature 9 classes like vegetation, water, and built areas, aim to assist decision-makers in various industries and governments by providing valuable insights into land use, natural capital, and resource management. Available through the ArcGIS Living Atlas, these maps enable better understanding and informed decision-making regarding geographical changes over time. ## ESRI Land Cover Types * Trees * Water * Flooded Vegetation * Bare Ground * Crops * Rangeland * Snow/Ice * Built Area # USGS National Land Cover Database (NLCD) The [National Land Cover Database (NLCD)](https://www.usgs.gov/programs/national-geospatial-program/land-cover) offers comprehensive, nationwide land cover data at a 30-meter resolution, using Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery. It provides detailed information on characteristics like thematic classes (urban, agriculture, forest), impervious surfaces, and tree canopy cover. NLCD uses real-time data and supports a range of applications, including ecosystem health assessment, biodiversity mapping, climate change prediction, and land management policy development. Created by the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium, led by the U.S. Geological Survey, NLCD data is freely available to the public. ## NLCD Land Cover Types * Forest * Water * Wetlands * Barren * Herbaceous * Shrubland * Perennial Ice/Snow * Developed * Planted/Cultivated # Dynamic World [Dynamic World](https://dynamicworld.app/) is a near real-time, 10M resolution, AI-powered global land cover dataset that serves multiple purposes. It is used by scientists and NGOs for monitoring planetary health, by companies to measure environmental impact and guide sustainable investments, and by governments to track their contributions to the Paris Agreement. The dataset, which is peer-reviewed and open-licensed, offers real-time insights into 9 different land use and cover types, and aims to make a positive impact on people and the planet. ## Dynamic World Land Cover Types * Trees * Water * Flooded Vegetation * Bare Ground * Crops * Grass * Shrub & Scrub * Snow/Ice * Built Up Area # Other Sources Our assessment included a thorough examination and deliberation of these Land Cover Classification and Ecosystem Typologies as a foundation for delineating BASIN Ecosystems: {% embed url="" %} Source: [BASIN RealValue Worksheet - PUBLIC](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1-Ho1C5J2TCFnSJnkSbNXvBldMIUZGZyll3e6kSwazT4/edit?usp=sharing) {% endembed %} # Ecosystem Types # Cultivated & Developed ## IUCN GET 2.0 T7 Intensive land-use systems ### **Intensive land-use systems** biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Annual croplands, Sown pastures and fields, Plantations, Urban and industrial ecosystems, Derived semi-natural pastures and oldfields. Intensive land-use systems include major anthropogenic enterprises of cropping, pastoralism, plantation farming, and urbanisation. Human intervention is a dominating influence on this biome, also known as the ‘anthrome’. Maintenance of these systems is contingent on continuing human interventions, including alterations to the physical structure of vegetation and substrates (e.g. clearing, earthworks and drainage), the supplementation of resources (e.g. with irrigation and fertilisers) and the introduction and control of biota. These interventions maintain disequilibrium community structure and composition, low endemism and low functional and taxonomic diversity. Target biota are genetically manipulated (by selective breeding or molecular engineering) to promote rapid growth rates, efficient resource capture, enhanced resource allocation to production tissues, and tolerance to harsh environmental conditions, predators and diseases. Non-target biota include widely dispersed, cosmopolitan opportunists with short lifecycles. Many intensive land use systems are maintained as artificial mosaics of contrasting patch types at scales of metres to hundreds of metres. Typically, but not exclusively, they are associated with temperate or subtropical climates and the natural availability of freshwater and nutrients from fertile soils on flat to undulating terrain accessible by machinery. The antecedent ecosystems that they replaced include forests, shrublands, grasslands and palustrine wetlands (biomes T1−T4 and TF1). On global and regional scales, intensive land- use systems are engaged in climate feedback processes via alterations to the water cycle and the release of greenhouse gases from vegetation, soils, livestock and fossil fuels. On local scales, temperatures may be modified by human-built structures (i.e. heat-island effects) or may be artificially controlled. ## ESVD ### Cultivated Area and Urban Green and Blue Infrastructure biomes **Cultivated Area biome** is comprised of Cropland (arable land), Pastures, Orchards/agro-forestry, Plantations, Rice paddies, Aquaculture, Small landscape elements, Other (cultivated areas). **Urban Green and Blue Infrastructure biome** is comprised of Urban Parks & Forests, Lawns, sports fields, golf courses, Urban lakes, ponds, wetlands, Street Trees & Shrubs, Other (urban green-blue). ## FEMA ESV Not defined as a land cover / ecosystem type. Used in context of Urban Green Open Space and Rural Green Open Space. ## ESRI Land Cover **Crops**: Human planted/plotted cereals, grasses, and crops not at tree height; examples: corn, wheat, soy, fallow plots of structured land. **Built Area**: Human made structures; major road and rail networks; large homogenous impervious surfaces including parking structures, office buildings and residential housing; examples: houses, dense villages / towns / cities, paved roads, asphalt. **Bare Ground** and **Rangeland** can also be found in this category. ## USGS NLCD ### Developed **Developed, Open Space** - areas with a mixture of some constructed materials, but mostly vegetation in the form of lawn grasses. Impervious surfaces account for less than 20% of total cover. These areas most commonly include large-lot single-family housing units, parks, golf courses, and vegetation planted in developed settings for recreation, erosion control, or aesthetic purposes. **Developed, Low Intensity** - areas with a mixture of constructed materials and vegetation. Impervious surfaces account for 20% to 49% percent of total cover. These areas most commonly include single-family housing units. **Developed, Medium Intensity** -areas with a mixture of constructed materials and vegetation. Impervious surfaces account for 50% to 79% of the total cover. These areas most commonly include single-family housing units. **Developed High Intensity** -highly developed areas where people reside or work in high numbers. Examples include apartment complexes, row houses and commercial/industrial. Impervious surfaces account for 80% to 100% of the total cover. ### Planted/Cultivated **Pasture/Hay** -areas of grasses, legumes, or grass-legume mixtures planted for livestock grazing or the production of seed or hay crops, typically on a perennial cycle. Pasture/hay vegetation accounts for greater than 20% of total vegetation. **Cultivated Crops** - areas used for the production of annual crops, such as corn, soybeans, vegetables, tobacco, and cotton, and also perennial woody crops such as orchards and vineyards. Crop vegetation accounts for greater than 20% of total vegetation. This class also includes all land being actively tilled. # Rivers & Lakes ## IUCN GET 2.0 F1 Rivers and streams, F2 Lakes, FM1 Semi-confined transitional waters, MFT1 Brackish tidal systems, MT3 Anthropogenic shorelines, MT1 Shoreline systems ### Rivers and streams biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Permanent upland streams, Permanent lowland rivers, Freeze-thaw rivers and streams, Seasonal upland streams, Seasonal lowland rivers, Episodic arid rivers, Large lowland rivers. Rivers and streams include lotic (running water) ecosystems, flowing from elevated uplands or underground springs to deltas, estuaries, and lakes. They are defined primarily by their linear structure, unidirectional flow regimes, and close interaction with the surrounding landscape. Individual rivers drain catchments separated by watersheds. Channels that make up a river system can be classified into stream orders, with 1st order streams having no tributaries, 2nd order streams having 1st order tributaries, 3rd order having 2nd order tributaries and so on. The world’s largest rivers are 10th-12th order. Flow regimes depend on stream order and rainfall patterns in the catchment (except in regulated rivers and spring-fed streams), which vary from year-round to seasonal to episodic. Stream gradients determine flow velocity and turbulence, bank and substrate structure, and habitat variability, but flow variability depends on regional climate and local weather. River systems in arid zones may remain dry for several years. These factors act as selection filters, differentiating lotic ecosystems and their species’ traits amongst flow regimes, and between uplands and lowlands. Productivity tends to increase from uplands to lowlands and is driven both by allochthonous energy sources that contribute coarse organic matter from terrestrial ecosystems in adjacent riparian zones and upper catchments, and by autochthonous energy synthesis by biofilms or phytoplankton. Phytoplankton is important downstream in larger, slower rivers that carry smaller organic particles and more dissolved organic matter. Erosion and depositional processes depend on the gradient and position of a stream reach within a catchment, and are fundamental to downstream passage of nutrients and organic matter and exchange between river ecosystems and surrounding land. Anthropogenic nutrient inputs increase downstream and vary with land use. Rivers with extensive peatlands in their catchments are rich in tannins, which reduce light penetration through the water column, increase acidity, promote microbial activity that thrives on dissolved organic carbon, and thereby reduce oxygen levels, productivity and biotic diversity, although endemism may be high. Streams in cold climates freeze over in winter, imposing seasonal constraints on productivity and the movement of organisms. Much of the biotic diversity resides in or on the stream benthos. Trophic webs are more complex in large rivers due to greater resource availability and niche diversity, and species-catchment area relationships. Invertebrate detritivores consume fragments of organic matter, providing resources for predatory macroinvertebrates and fish, which in turn support larger predatory fish, waterbirds, reptiles, and some mammals. Specialised species-level traits are associated with different flow regimes and life history strategies often align with patterns of resource availability. For example, suspension feeding is common in high flow velocities, cold tolerance and seasonal dormancy occur in freeze-thaw streams, life cycles are geared to autumnal leaf fall in temperate forested catchments, and desiccation tolerance and dormant life stages dominate in episodic rivers. ### Lakes biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): F2.1 Large permanent freshwater lakes, Small permanent freshwater lakes, Seasonal freshwater lakes, Freeze-thaw freshwater lakes, Ephemeral freshwater lakes, Permanent salt and soda lakes, Ephemeral salt lakes, Artesian springs and oases, Geothermal pools and wetlands, Subglacial lakes. The Lakes biome includes lentic ecosystems defined by their still waters. They vary in area, depth, water regime and connectivity to other aquatic systems across a global distribution. Gradients in water regimes, temperature, lake size and salinity (and salt composition) exert critical influences on the function, productivity, diversity and trophic structure of lake ecosystems. Water regimes vary from permanent open waters to seasonal or episodic filling and drying on interannual time scales. Lakes span global climatic gradients, which influence their water regimes through catchment precipitation and evapotranspiration rates, as well as the seasonal freeze-thaw cycles of lake surfaces along latitudinal and altitudinal temperature gradients. The azonal character of the Lakes biome, however, is due to the buffering of climatic influences by groundwater, geomorphology, and substrate. This is most evident in the water regimes of artesian springs, oases and geothermal wetlands, as their water sources are largely independent of climate. Lake and catchment substrates influence nutrient stocks and salinity, but concentrations may vary temporally depending on water regimes and mixing. Deeper and freeze-thaw lakes are often characterised by stratification, producing depth gradients in nutrient and oxygen availability and temperatures. The deepest lakes extend to the aphotic zone. Productivity is determined by allochthonous inputs from the catchments and autochthonous inputs from phytoplankton, periphyton (i.e. biofilms), and submerged, floating and emergent macrophytes. Trophic webs tend to increase in size and complexity with lake size due to increased resource availability and niche diversity, but small shallow lakes have greater diversity than small deep lakes due to habitat heterogeneity and light penetration to the bottm allowing development of benthic macrophytes and associated biota. Salt lakes may have high productivity but simple trophic structures, with high abundances of few species. Invertebrate detritivores consume fragments of organic matter, providing resources for macroinvertebrates, fish, waterbirds, reptiles and mammals. Species traits appear to be strongly influenced by environmental filtering by the water regime (e.g. cold tolerance and seasonal dormancy occurs in freeze-thaw lakes and desiccation tolerance and dormant life stages dominate in ephemeral lakes) and water chemistry (i.e. tolerance to salinity in salt lakes). ### Semi-confined transitional waters biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Deepwater coastal inlets, Permanently open riverine estuaries and bays, Intermittently closed and open lakes and lagoons. The Transitional waters biome includes coastal inlets that are influenced by inputs of both fresh and marine water from terrestrial catchments and ocean tides, waves and currents. They include deep-water coastal inlets or fjords mostly restricted to high latitudes, as well as estuaries, bays and lagoons, which are scattered around coastlines throughout the world. Gradients in water regimes, water chemistry, depth, temperature, size and salinity influence the function, productivity, diversity and trophic structure of these transitional ecosystems. The balance between marine or freshwater influences varies seasonally and inter-annually, depending on the climate and among inlets with differing geomorphology, catchment size, climate and exposure to waves and currents. In some cases, ecosystems characteristic of the marine shelf biome (i.e. M1.1 Seagrass meadows) may have significant occurrences within semi-confined transitional waters. Some inlets are permanently connected to the ocean, but others are only intermittently connected, influencing exchanges of water, nutrients and biota among ecosystems. The dynamics of connection and closure of shallow inlets are regulated by variations in steam flow inputs and wave activity. Strong horizontal and vertical salinity gradients (varying with freshwater and marine inputs) structure biotic communities and traits that equip species for occupying different salinity niches. Autochthonous energy generated by primary production from aquatic macrophytes, phytoplankton, macroalgae and diatoms is subsidised by allochthonous inputs from inlet shorelines, freshwater streams and marine incursion. These high levels of energy availability support complex trophic networks, including large populations of macroinvertebrates, fish, waterbirds, seabirds and some mammals and reptiles. Many inlets function as fish nurseries and bird breeding sites. ### Brackish tidal systems biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Coastal river deltas, Intertidal forests and shrublands, Coastal saltmarshes and reedbeds. The Brackish tidal systems biome is associated with prograding depositional shorelines at the interface of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine realms. The relative influences of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial processes vary from strongly fluvial deltas to marine-dominated intertidal forests and terrestrial-dominated coastal saltmarsh. Autochthonous sources of energy, contributed by flowering plants and algae, are supplemented by allochthonous sources delivered by rivers, currents, and tides. These sources support high productivity and complex trophic webs that include highly mobile fish and birds that rely on brackish tidal systems to complete their lifecycles. Standing plants assimilate energy and engineer habitat structure for epifauna and epiflora as well as juvenile fish nurseries. They also promote sediment deposition by dampening wave and tidal energy. While terrestrial systems are the ultimate source of most sediment, fluvial and marine processes redistribute it and drive patch dynamics across temporal and spatial scales. Brackish tidal systems are structured by steep local gradients in salinity and tidal exposure. Physiological traits that confer differential fitness and competitive abilities, together with differential predation pressure, mediate species turnover along gradients. Brackish tidal systems are distributed on depositional coastlines throughout the world. ### Anthropogenic shorelines biome is comprised of the Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Artificial shores. The Anthropogenic shorelines biome is distributed globally where urbanised and industrial areas adjoin the coast, and includes some more remote structures such as artificial islands. It includes marine interfaces constructed from hard, smooth surfaces, including concrete, timber, lithic blocks and earthen fill, adjoining, extending or replacing natural shores, or floating in proximity to them. These relatively homogeneous substrates support an opportunistic, cosmopolitan biota with limited diversity and simplified trophic structure compared to other shoreline systems. Vertical surfaces are inhabited by algae and biofouling species but are exposed to strong tidal desiccation regimes that strongly filter potential colonists. Floating structures have downward-facing, usually smooth, surfaces, unlike almost anything in nature, which may be colonised by opportunists. Influx of storm water and effluent enhances nutrient levels and eutrophic algae, which contribute autochthonous energy. Outflows from developed areas are also major sources of allochthonous energy. Strong bottom-up regulation stems from these resource inputs and from low populations of predators, which are depleted or deterred by human activity. ### Shoreline systems biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Rocky shores, Muddy shores, Sandy shores, Boulder and cobble shores. The Shoreline systems biome comprises naturally formed, intertidal abiogenic habitats situated at the interface between land and sea. The distribution of the biome spans all latitudes (temperate to polar) at which landmasses are present. Productivity ranges from high to low, is loosely proportional to the availability of stable hard substrate for macrophyte attachment and inversely proportional to the dependency on allochthonous energy sources derived from both land and sea. Productivity is also influenced by coastal upwelling and, for ecotypes of finer particle size, the nutrient content of adjacent terrestrial sediments. Within and across ecotypes, biotic communities are strongly structured by tides, waves and particle size, ranging from contiguous rock to fine silts and clays. Notably, some shorelines comprise mixed hard and soft substrates, with vertical zonation varying temporally in response to storm events and redeposition of soft sediments. Tides produce a vertical gradient of increasing aerial exposure across which desiccation and temperature stress increase, time available for filter-feeding decreases, and interactions with marine and terrestrial predators vary. Waves and particle size determine substrate stability and the physical disturbance regime. Wave action, diminishing from headlands to bays, produces horizontal gradients in community structure. Many organisms possess morphological and behavioural adaptations to prevent desiccation at low tide and dislodgement by wave forces. Burrowing animals are important in unconsolidated sediments. Competition (especially for space) is a major factor structuring communities, with its importance diminishing with decreasing particle size. Facilitative interactions (particularly those that protect organisms from desiccation stress or physical disturbance) can be important across ecosystems of all particle sizes. Biodiversity is generally high, with microscopic lifeforms dominating the biomass of systems of small particle size. ## ESVD **Rivers and lakes biome** is comprised of: rivers; Lakes, freshwater; Lakes, saltwater; Human made water bodies; Other (rivers and lakes) ## FEMA ESV FEMA uses two definitions under the title “Riparian”: ### **U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service** Areas where plant communities are contiguous to and affected by surface and subsurface hydrologic features of perennial or intermittent lotic and lentic water bodies (rivers, streams, lakes, or drainage ways). Riparian areas are usually transitional between wetland and upland. Riparian areas have one or both of the following characteristics: 1) distinctly different vegetative species than adjacent areas; 2) species similar to adjacent areas but exhibiting more vigorous or robust growth forms. ### USDA’s Natural Resources Conservation Service Riparian areas are ecotones that occur along watercourses or water bodies. They are distinctly different from the surrounding lands because of unique soil and vegetation characteristics that are strongly influenced by free or unbound water in the soil. Riparian ecotones occupy the transitional area between the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Typical examples would include perennial and intermittent streambanks, floodplains, and lake shores. ## Other ESRI, USGS, and Dynamic World use primarily Water for this category. Flooded vegetation can fit into the Riparian category. # Inland Wetlands ## IUCN GET 2.0 Two main Biomes: TF1 Palustrine wetlands; F3 Artificial wetlands ### Palustrine wetlands biome consists of these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Tropical flooded forests and peat forests, Subtropical/temperate forested wetlands, Permanent marshes, Seasonal floodplain marshes, Episodic arid floodplains, Boreal, temperate and montane peat bogs, Boreal and temperate fens. At the interface of terrestrial and freshwater realms, the Palustrine wetlands biome includes vegetated floodplains, groundwater seeps, and mires with permanent or intermittent surface water. Although water and light are abundant at least periodically, saturation of the soil may result in oxygen deprivation below the ground. This suppresses microbial activity and, in many systems, production exceeds decomposition, resulting in peat accumulation. The water regime influences resource availability and productivity and thus regulates these ecosystems from the bottom-up. Interactions among catchment precipitation, local evapotranspiration, and substrate and surface morphology regulate run-on, runoff, infiltration, and percolation. This results in water regimes that vary from permanent shallow standing water or near-surface water tables to seasonally high water tables to episodic inundation with long inter-annual dry phases. As a consequence of their indirect relationships with climate, wetland biomes are traditionally classified as ‘azonal’. Spatial heterogeneity is a key feature of palustrine wetlands. At landscape scales, they function as resource sinks and refuges with substantially higher productivity than the surrounding matrix. Fine-scale spatial variation in the water regime often produces restricted hydrological niches and intricate mosaics of patch types with contrasting structure and biotic composition. Autotrophs dominate complex trophic webs. Amphibious macrophytes are the dominant autotrophs, although epibenthic algae are important in some systems. Amphibious plants have specialised traits enabling growth and survival in low-oxygen substrates and often engineer habitats for heterotrophs. Microbial decomposers and invertebrate detritivores are most abundant in surface soils. A range of microscopic and macroinvertebrates with sedentary adult phases (i.e. crustaceans) have obligate associations with Palustrine wetlands, which also provide important foraging and breeding sites for macroinvertebrate and vertebrate herbivores and predators that disperse more widely across the landscape, including waterbirds. ### Artificial wetlands biome consist of these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Large reservoirs, Constructed lacustrine wetlands, Rice paddies, Freshwater aquafarms, Canals, ditches and drains. The Artificial wetlands biome includes built structures that hold or transfer water for human use, treatment, or disposal, including large storage reservoirs, farm dams or ponds, recreational and ornamental wetlands, rice paddies, freshwater aquafarms, wastewater storages and treatment ponds, and canals, ditches and drains. These are globally distributed but are most often found in humid and subhumid tropical and temperate environments where rural and urban developments are predominant. Most of these ecosystems contain standing water with the exception of canals and drains. For most of these ecosystems, energy, water and nutrients come primarily from allochthonous sources, either incidentally from runoff (e.g. farm dams, ditches and storm water canals) or groundwater, or deterministically by management (e.g. rice paddies, aquafarms, and wastewater ponds), but autochthonous energy sources (in situ algae and macrophytes) can be important in some artificial waterbodies. Water chemistry varies with human use, with some wastewater ponds accumulating toxins or eutrophic levels of nutrients, while large reservoirs with undisturbed catchments may be oligotrophic. Artificial wetlands are generally less temporally variable, more spatially homogeneous, and often support less biological diversity and trophic complexity of their natural analogues. Nonetheless, in some highly transformed landscapes, they may provide anthropogenic refuges and critical habitat for complementary suites of native biota to that remaining in depleted wetlands, including some biota that no longer occur in natural or semi-natural ecosystems, as well as a range of opportunistic colonists. Trophic webs vary with the connectivity and depth of the water body, temperature and substrate. The simplest artificial wetlands support only microbial biota, while the most diverse can include submerged or emergent plant communities, which promote complex habitats for invertebrates, fish, waterbirds, amphibians, reptiles and, sometimes, amphibious mammals. ## ESVD **Inland wetlands** include: Swamps, marshes; Peatland, Non-forested; Peatland, Forested; Peatland, Tropical; Peatland, Boreal; Wetlands, Forested (on alluvial soils); Wetlands, Groundwater-dependent; Floodplains; Other (inland wetlands) ## FEMA ESV **Inland Wetlands**: Areas dominated (20 percent or more) by perennial herbaceous vegetation, vegetation that grows and forms a continuous cover on or at the surface of the water, shrubland vegetation, or forest; AND the soil or substrate is at least periodically saturated with or covered with water; AND these waters are tidally influenced and have a salinity less than 0.5 parts per thousand. *This definition is based on the Coastal Change Analysis Program (C-CAP) Regional Land Cover Classification Scheme definitions for Palustrine wetlands and aquatic beds.* ## Other USGS does have a Wetlands category while ESRI and Dynamic World use Water and Flooded Vegetation. ### USGS (NLCD) Wetlands: **Woody Wetlands** - areas where forest or shrubland vegetation accounts for greater than 20% of vegetative cover and the soil or substrate is periodically saturated with or covered with water. **Emergent Herbaceous Wetlands** - Areas where perennial herbaceous vegetation accounts for greater than 80% of vegetative cover and the soil or substrate is periodically saturated with or covered with water. # Urban Green Open Space ## IUCN GET 2.0 There is no mention of open space or parks in GET 2.0. The most logical biome is T7 Intensive land-use systems of which Urban Green Open Space would be a part. ### Intensive land-use systems biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Annual croplands, Sown pastures and fields, Plantations, Urban and industrial ecosystems, Derived semi-natural pastures and oldfields. Intensive land-use systems include major anthropogenic enterprises of cropping, pastoralism, plantation farming, and urbanisation. Human intervention is a dominating influence on this biome, also known as the ‘anthrome’. Maintenance of these systems is contingent on continuing human interventions, including alterations to the physical structure of vegetation and substrates (e.g. clearing, earthworks and drainage), the supplementation of resources (e.g. with irrigation and fertilisers) and the introduction and control of biota. These interventions maintain disequilibrium community structure and composition, low endemism and low functional and taxonomic diversity. Target biota are genetically manipulated (by selective breeding or molecular engineering) to promote rapid growth rates, efficient resource capture, enhanced resource allocation to production tissues, and tolerance to harsh environmental conditions, predators and diseases. Non-target biota include widely dispersed, cosmopolitan opportunists with short lifecycles. Many intensive land use systems are maintained as artificial mosaics of contrasting patch types at scales of metres to hundreds of metres. Typically, but not exclusively, they are associated with temperate or subtropical climates and the natural availability of freshwater and nutrients from fertile soils on flat to undulating terrain accessible by machinery. The antecedent ecosystems that they replaced include forests, shrublands, grasslands and palustrine wetlands (biomes T1−T4 and TF1). On global and regional scales, intensive land- use systems are engaged in climate feedback processes via alterations to the water cycle and the release of greenhouse gases from vegetation, soils, livestock and fossil fuels. On local scales, temperatures may be modified by human-built structures (i.e. heat-island effects) or may be artificially controlled. ## ESVD Primarily Urban Green and Blue Infrastructure biome and some of Cultivated Area and/or Inland Un- or Sparsely Vegetated biome classification. **Urban Green and Blue Infrastructure biome** is comprised of Urban Parks & Forests, Lawns, sports fields, golf courses, Urban lakes, ponds, wetlands, Street Trees & Shrubs, Other (urban green-blue). **Cultivated Area biome** is comprised of Cropland (arable land), Pastures, Orchards/agro-forestry, Plantations, Rice paddies, Aquaculture, Small landscape elements, Other (cultivated areas). **Inland Un- or Sparsely Vegetated** is comprised of Underground systems, Inland rock formations, Other (inland un- or sparsely vegetated). (The use of these are narrowed down by urban or rural in context of BASIN.) ## FEMA ESV Utilizes 2019 National Land Cover Database (NLCD): **Urban green open space areas** are those in which vegetated pervious surfaces account for at least 80% of total cover (impervious surfaces account for less than 20% of total cover) and include a mixture of some constructed materials. Green open space is considered “urban” if it meets the criteria specified in the U.S. Census Bureau’s “2010 Census Urban and Rural Classification and Urban Area Criteria,” which includes both Urbanized Areas (population of 50,000 or more) and Urban Clusters (population between 2,500 and 50,000). Examples of urban green open space include urban parks and recreational sites, neighborhood green spaces, pocket parks, green corridors, and lawns. Under FEMA project area is within an “urban” setting, as defined by the 2010 U.S. Census, by visiting [this link](https://tigerweb.geo.census.gov/tigerweb/) . First, select “BVP 2020” from the “Select Vintage” drop-down box. Then, click the check box next to “Urban Areas” on the sidebar, which will highlight both Urbanized Areas and Urban Clusters on the map. Enter an address within your project area on the map to determine whether it is located within one of these areas. # Rural Green Open Space ## IUCN GET 2.0 There is no mention of open space or parks in GET 2.0. The most logical biome is T7 Intensive land-use systems in a rural setting. ### Intensive land-use systems biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Annual croplands, Sown pastures and fields, Plantations, Urban and industrial ecosystems, Derived semi-natural pastures and oldfields. Intensive land-use systems include major anthropogenic enterprises of cropping, pastoralism, plantation farming, and urbanisation. Human intervention is a dominating influence on this biome, also known as the ‘anthrome’. Maintenance of these systems is contingent on continuing human interventions, including alterations to the physical structure of vegetation and substrates (e.g. clearing, earthworks and drainage), the supplementation of resources (e.g. with irrigation and fertilisers) and the introduction and control of biota. These interventions maintain disequilibrium community structure and composition, low endemism and low functional and taxonomic diversity. Target biota are genetically manipulated (by selective breeding or molecular engineering) to promote rapid growth rates, efficient resource capture, enhanced resource allocation to production tissues, and tolerance to harsh environmental conditions, predators and diseases. Non-target biota include widely dispersed, cosmopolitan opportunists with short lifecycles. Many intensive land use systems are maintained as artificial mosaics of contrasting patch types at scales of metres to hundreds of metres. Typically, but not exclusively, they are associated with temperate or subtropical climates and the natural availability of freshwater and nutrients from fertile soils on flat to undulating terrain accessible by machinery. The antecedent ecosystems that they replaced include forests, shrublands, grasslands and palustrine wetlands (biomes T1−T4 and TF1). On global and regional scales, intensive land- use systems are engaged in climate feedback processes via alterations to the water cycle and the release of greenhouse gases from vegetation, soils, livestock and fossil fuels. On local scales, temperatures may be modified by human-built structures (i.e. heat-island effects) or may be artificially controlled. ## ESVD **Cultivated Area and/or Inland Un- or Sparsely Vegetated biome** classification (in a rural setting). ## FEMA ESV Utilizes 2019 National Land CoverDatabase (NLCD): **Rural green open space areas** where vegetation accounts for at least 80% of total cover (impervious surfaces account for less than 20% of total cover) and have a mixture of some constructed materials located in a rural setting. A rural setting is any area outside 2010 Census Urbanized Areas (population of 50,000 or more) or Urban Clusters (population between 2,500 and 50,000) definitions.192 Examples include rural parks and open space, open fields, and rangelands. FEMA rural status is a project area outside an “urban” setting, as defined by the 2010 U.S. Census, by visiting [this link](https://tigerweb.geo.census.gov/tigerweb/). First, choose BVP 2020 from the “Select Vintage” drop-down box. Then, click the check box next to Urban Areas on the sidebar. Find your project area on the map and determine if it is located outside either an Urbanized Area or Urban Cluster. # Forests ## IUCN GET 2.0 Categorizes forests by two biomes: Tropical-subtropical forests and Temperate-boreal forests & woodlands. ### Tropical-subtropical forests biome is comprised of these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Tropical-subtropical lowland rainforests, Tropical-subtropical dry forests and thickets, Tropical-subtropical montane rainforests, Tropical heath forests. The Tropical-subtropical forests biome includes moderate to highly productive ecosystems with closed tree canopies occurring at lower latitudes north and south of the equator. Fragmented occurrences extend to the subtropics in suitable mesoclimates. High primary productivity is underpinned by high insolation, warm temperatures, relatively low seasonal variation in day length and temperature (increasing to the subtropics), and strong water surpluses associated with the intertropical convergence zone extending to wetter parts of the seasonal tropics and subtropics. Productivity and biomass vary in response to: i) strong rainfall gradients associated with seasonal migration of the intertropical convergence zone; ii) altitudinal gradients in precipitation, cloud cover, and temperatures; and iii) edaphic gradients that influence the availability of soil nutrients. Species diversity and the complexity of both vegetation and trophic structures are positively correlated with standing biomass and primary productivity; however, trophic webs and other ecosystem processes are strongly regulated from the bottom-up by the dominant photoautotrophs (trees), which fix abundant energy and carbon, engineer habitats for many other organisms, and underpin feedbacks related to nutrient and water cycling and regional climate. Complex nutrient cycling and/or sequestering mechanisms are common, countering the high potential for soil nutrient leaching due to high rainfall. Plant species exhibit leaf plasticity, shade tolerance and gap-phase dynamics in response to the periodic opening of canopy gaps initiated by tree death, storm damage, and lightning strikes. Fires may occur in ecotonal areas between these forests and savannas. Biogeographic legacies result in strong compositional distinctions and consequently some functional differences among land masses within the biome. ### Temperate-boreal forests & woodlands biome is comprised of these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Boreal and temperate high montane forests and woodlands, Deciduous temperate forests, Oceanic cool temperate rainforests, Warm temperate laurophyll forests, Temperate pyric humid forests, Temperate pyric sclerophyll forests and woodlands. Temperate-boreal forests and woodlands biome include moderate to highly productive tree-dominated systems with a wide range of physiognomic and structural expressions distributed from warm-temperate to boreal latitudes. Although generally less diverse than Tropical-subtropical forests (T1) in taxa such as flowering plants, primates, and birds, these Temperate-boreal forests exhibit greater temporal and spatial variability in productivity, biomass, phenology, and leaf traits of trees. Temporal variability is expressed primarily through seasonal variation in water balance and/or temperature, which regulate the length and timing of growing and breeding seasons. Inter-annual variation is usually less important than in some other biomes (i.e. T5), but nonetheless may play significant roles in resource availability and disturbance regimes (e.g. fire and storms). Gradients in minimum temperatures, soil nutrients, and fire regimes differentiate ecosystem functional groups within this biome. These influence traits such as leaf form (broadleaf vs. needleleaf), leaf phenology (evergreen vs. deciduous), ecophysiological and morphological traits promoting nutrient acquisition and conservation, and morphological traits related to flammability, fire resistance, and recovery. The dominant photoautotrophs (trees) engineer habitats and underpin trophic webs. Resource gradients exert strong bottom-up controls on trophic processes, but in some temperate forests, fires are significant top-down consumers of biomass, as well as influencing flammability feedbacks and timing of life-history processes, such as reproduction and recruitment. ## ESVD ESVD and TEEB separate forests into tropical and temperate: **Tropical forests** include Tropical rain forest, Tropical dry forest, Tropical cloud forests, Other (tropical forests) **Temperate forests** include Temperate rain or evergreen forest, Temperate deciduous forest, Boreal/coniferous forest (‘Taiga’), Other (temperate forests) ## FEMA ESV **Forests**: Areas dominated by trees (evergreen and/or deciduous) generally greater than 5 meters tall that – on average – comprise greater than 20% of the total vegetation cover within the area or unit of analysis (e.g., pixel, polygon, parcel). *FEMA Ecosystem Service Value Updates 2022 uses the 2019 National Land Cover Database (NLCD) as modified from the Anderson Land Cover Classification System.* ## Other IUCN Red List, USGS, ESRI, and Dynamic World uses Forest or Trees and do not sub-categorize. # Coastal Systems ## IUCN GET 2.0 FM1 Semi-confined transitional waters, MT1 Shoreline systems, MT2 Supralittoral coastal systems, MFT1 Brackish tidal systems, M Marine shelfs, MT3 Anthropogenic shorelines, M4 Anthropogenic marine systems ### Semi-confined transitional waters biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Deepwater coastal inlets, Permanently open riverine estuaries and bays, Intermittently closed and open lakes and lagoons. The Transitional waters biome includes coastal inlets that are influenced by inputs of both fresh and marine water from terrestrial catchments and ocean tides, waves and currents. They include deep-water coastal inlets or fjords mostly restricted to high latitudes, as well as estuaries, bays and lagoons, which are scattered around coastlines throughout the world. Gradients in water regimes, water chemistry, depth, temperature, size and salinity influence the function, productivity, diversity and trophic structure of these transitional ecosystems. The balance between marine or freshwater influences varies seasonally and inter-annually, depending on the climate and among inlets with differing geomorphology, catchment size, climate and exposure to waves and currents. In some cases, ecosystems characteristic of the marine shelf biome (i.e. M1.1 Seagrass meadows) may have significant occurrences within semi-confined transitional waters. Some inlets are permanently connected to the ocean, but others are only intermittently connected, influencing exchanges of water, nutrients and biota among ecosystems. The dynamics of connection and closure of shallow inlets are regulated by variations in steam flow inputs and wave activity. Strong horizontal and vertical salinity gradients (varying with freshwater and marine inputs) structure biotic communities and traits that equip species for occupying different salinity niches. Autochthonous energy generated by primary production from aquatic macrophytes, phytoplankton, macroalgae and diatoms is subsidised by allochthonous inputs from inlet shorelines, freshwater streams and marine incursion. These high levels of energy availability support complex trophic networks, including large populations of macroinvertebrates, fish, waterbirds, seabirds and some mammals and reptiles. Many inlets function as fish nurseries and bird breeding sites. ### Shoreline systems biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Rocky shores, Muddy shores, Sandy shores, Boulder and cobble shores. The Shoreline systems biome comprises naturally formed, intertidal abiogenic habitats situated at the interface between land and sea. The distribution of the biome spans all latitudes (temperate to polar) at which landmasses are present. Productivity ranges from high to low, is loosely proportional to the availability of stable hard substrate for macrophyte attachment and inversely proportional to the dependency on allochthonous energy sources derived from both land and sea. Productivity is also influenced by coastal upwelling and, for ecotypes of finer particle size, the nutrient content of adjacent terrestrial sediments. Within and across ecotypes, biotic communities are strongly structured by tides, waves and particle size, ranging from contiguous rock to fine silts and clays. Notably, some shorelines comprise mixed hard and soft substrates, with vertical zonation varying temporally in response to storm events and redeposition of soft sediments. Tides produce a vertical gradient of increasing aerial exposure across which desiccation and temperature stress increase, time available for filter-feeding decreases, and interactions with marine and terrestrial predators vary. Waves and particle size determine substrate stability and the physical disturbance regime. Wave action, diminishing from headlands to bays, produces horizontal gradients in community structure. Many organisms possess morphological and behavioural adaptations to prevent desiccation at low tide and dislodgement by wave forces. Burrowing animals are important in unconsolidated sediments. Competition (especially for space) is a major factor structuring communities, with its importance diminishing with decreasing particle size. Facilitative interactions (particularly those that protect organisms from desiccation stress or physical disturbance) can be important across ecosystems of all particle sizes. Biodiversity is generally high, with microscopic lifeforms dominating the biomass of systems of small particle size. ### Supralittoral coastal systems biome is comprised of the Ecosystem Functional Group (EFG): Coastal shrublands and grasslands. The Supralittoral coastal biome marks the landward extent of the transition from marine to terrestrial biomes. It is elevated above the direct influence of waves and tides (see MT1) and beyond the direct influence of freshwater seepage or rivers (see MFT1). Supratidal coastal ecosystems extend around all the world’s land masses, occupying a fringe from tens of metres to a few kilometres wide and covering the entire extent of many small islands. Onshore winds, created by differences in air pressure related to the differing heat capacities of water and dry land, are a key driver of ecosystem function. These winds create desiccating conditions on elevated landforms, such as headlands and coastal dunes, as well as continual inputs of aerosol salts and salt spray. Even though the supralittoral zone is located above high spring tide, it is exposed to recurring disturbance from storms producing exceptional waves and tides that reduce standing biomass and destabilise substrates. These strong environmental gradients select for a specialised, low-diversity biota. Much of this biota is confined to supralittoral ecosystems and nowhere else, a key feature of these ecosystems, although it may be widely distributed behind shorelines on different land masses due to dispersal by coastal winds, oceanic currents, and/or migratory behaviour. Autochthonous energy is produced by wind-pruned vegetation with traits promoting tolerance to desiccation, high salinity and substrate instability (e.g. stomatal regulation, extensive rhizomes or root systems and succulence). The sea supplies allochthonous energy subsidies, such as wrack and guano, but also transports a portion of primary production to other ecosystems. Invertebrate detritivores and physical weathering contribute to rapid decay. Supralittoral ecosystems also provide nesting habitat for seabirds on the surface, in vegetation or in burrows, especially on islands free from terrestrial mammalian predators. ### Brackish tidal systems biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Coastal river deltas, Intertidal forests and shrublands (i.e. mangroves), Coastal saltmarshes and reedbeds. The Brackish tidal systems biome is associated with prograding depositional shorelines at the interface of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine realms. The relative influences of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial processes vary from strongly fluvial deltas to marine-dominated intertidal forests and terrestrial-dominated coastal saltmarsh. Autochthonous sources of energy, contributed by flowering plants and algae, are supplemented by allochthonous sources delivered by rivers, currents, and tides. These sources support high productivity and complex trophic webs that include highly mobile fish and birds that rely on brackish tidal systems to complete their lifecycles. Standing plants assimilate energy and engineer habitat structure for epifauna and epiflora as well as juvenile fish nurseries. They also promote sediment deposition by dampening wave and tidal energy. While terrestrial systems are the ultimate source of most sediment, fluvial and marine processes redistribute it and drive patch dynamics across temporal and spatial scales. Brackish tidal systems are structured by steep local gradients in salinity and tidal exposure. Physiological traits that confer differential fitness and competitive abilities, together with differential predation pressure, mediate species turnover along gradients. Brackish tidal systems are distributed on depositional coastlines throughout the world. ### Marine Shelfs biome is comprised of these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Seagrass meadows, Kelp forests, Photic coral reefs, Shellfish beds and reefs, Photo-limited marine animal forests, Subtidal rocky reefs, Subtidal sand beds, Subtidal mud plains, Upwelling zones. The Marine shelf biome is distributed globally between the shoreline and deep sea-floor biomes and is dominated by benthic productivity. It includes ecosystems with biogenic substrates (such as seagrass meadows, kelp forests, oyster beds and coral reefs) and minerogenic substrates, including rocky reefs, sandy bottoms and muddy bottoms. The availability of light and nutrients are key structuring factors, influencing productivity and ecosystem structure and function. Turbidity and depth gradients influence light availability. Productivity depends on upwelling currents that deliver nutrients from the deep ocean floor, as well as the strength of nutrient inputs from the land, delivered largely by fluvial systems. Light is influenced by depth gradients, but also by water clarity (cf. turbidity), and determines whether macrophytes and animals dependent on photosynthetic symbionts are able to establish and persist. Additionally, whether the bottom type is hard or soft dictates whether sessile organisms can dominate, forming biogenic habitats that protrude into the water column. A shallow water biome, the marine shelf is shaped by kinetic wave energy and, in polar regions, also ice scour. Positive feedback loops, whereby the habitat structures formed by sessile organisms dampens kinetic energy, can enable ecotypes to persist under marginally suitable conditions. The strength of top-down control by consumers can be an important factor in determining community structure. Depending on the benthic biota, energy sources can vary from net autotrophic to net heterotrophic. Temperature and, to a lesser extent, salinity influence the presence and identity of dominant habitat-forming biota. Currents can influence ecotypes by determining patterns of larval dispersal and the flow of resources. ### Anthropogenic shorelines biome is comprised of the Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Artificial shores. The Anthropogenic shorelines biome is distributed globally where urbanised and industrial areas adjoin the coast, and includes some more remote structures such as artificial islands. It includes marine interfaces constructed from hard, smooth surfaces, including concrete, timber, lithic blocks and earthen fill, adjoining, extending or replacing natural shores, or floating in proximity to them. These relatively homogeneous substrates support an opportunistic, cosmopolitan biota with limited diversity and simplified trophic structure compared to other shoreline systems. Vertical surfaces are inhabited by algae and biofouling species but are exposed to strong tidal desiccation regimes that strongly filter potential colonists. Floating structures have downward-facing, usually smooth, surfaces, unlike almost anything in nature, which may be colonised by opportunists. Influx of storm water and effluent enhances nutrient levels and eutrophic algae, which contribute autochthonous energy. Outflows from developed areas are also major sources of allochthonous energy. Strong bottom-up regulation stems from these resource inputs and from low populations of predators, which are depleted or deterred by human activity. ### Anthropogenic marine systems biome is comprised of the Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Submerged artificial structures and Marine aquafarms. Humans have constructed, deposited or dumped artificial structures in the oceans that either confine managed marine organisms or attract marine biota that would not otherwise occupy such locations. These structures are distributed globally but are most common in regions of high-density occupation or transit. They include shipwrecks and mineral, gas, or energy infrastructure, pipelines, and rubble piles, as well as aquaculture infrastructure. These installations provide an epibenthic substrate for sessile benthic organisms, as well as a demersal or pelagic environment for mobile organisms. Diversity and biomass of the epibenthic biofouling community is positively related to substrate rugosity. Most energy is supplied to these ecosystems from allochthonous sources, either passively via currents or actively through addition by humans (as is thecase in aquaculture). Epibenthic and planktonic marine algae, however, make a contribution to the energy budget through local primary production. Microbial decomposers and invertebrate detritivores in the sediments beneath and around the structures feed on particulate organic matter from the epibenthic biota (e.g. waste products and decaying bodies) or on unconsumed food delivered to managed species. The elevated productivity or visual features of artificial structures often attract larger pelagic predators, which forage in the vicinity. ## ESVD The **Coastal systems (including wetlands) biome** in ESVD is comprised of Sand dunes, beaches, rocky shores, Tidal marshes, Salt marshes, Mangroves, Lagoons, Estuaries, Unvegetated sediment, Shellfish reefs, Seagrass beds, Kelp forests, Other (coastal systems) ## FEMA ESV FEMA has three coastal categories: Coastal wetlands, Beaches and Dunes, Shellfish reefs, and Coral Reefs. **Coastal wetlands** are defined as: Areas of tidal wetlands (herbaceous and/or woody vegetation) or deepwater habitats in which plants grow and form a continuous cover principally on or at the surface of the water (e.g., algal mats, kelp beds, and submerged aquatic vegetation); AND vegetation coverage is greater than 20%; AND these waters are tidally influenced and have a salinity greater than or equal to 0.5 parts per thousand. This definition of coastal wetland is a combination of several categories within the Coastal Change Analysis Program (C-CAP) Regional Land Cover Classification Scheme for Estuarine Wetlands developed by NOAA, 40 which is a nationally standardized inventory of land cover for the coastal areas of the U.S. Specifically, the following categories have been captured: Estuarine Forested Wetland (16); Estuarine Scrub/Shrub Wetland (17); Estuarine Emergent Wetland (18); and Estuarine Aquatic Bed (23). **Beaches and Dunes** are defined as: Areas consisting of material such as silt, sand, or gravel that is subject to inundation and redistribution due to water or wind. Substrates have no vegetative cover except for pioneering plants that are briefly established when growing conditions are favorable. This definition of beaches and dunes is based on the Coastal Change Analysis Program (C-CAP) Regional Land Cover Classification Scheme definition of Unconsolidated Shore. This is a nationally standardized inventory of land cover for the coastal areas of the U.S. developed by NOAA. **Shellfish Reefs** are defined as: Areas where the substrate is dominated by living or non-living shell reefs and are surrounded and intermixed with channels and unvegetated flats, typically occurring in the intertidal zone. This definition of shellfish reefs is based on the 2012 Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) Coastal and marine ecological classification standard similar to the “Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats in the United States”. **Coral Reefs** are defined as: Areas of hardened, fixed substrate or structures created by deposition of calcium carbonate by reef- building coral species. May include both deep- and shallow-water coral species. This definition of coral reefs is based on the Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification Standard (CMECS),255 a national framework which organizes information about coasts and oceans. CMECS is endorsed by the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) as the national standard for classifying coastal and marine areas. # Grasslands ## IUCN GET 2.0 T4 Savannas and grasslands The **savannas and grasslands biome** is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Trophic savannas, Pyric tussock savannas, Hummock savannas, Temperate woodlands, Temperate subhumid grasslands. Ecological functions within the Savannas and grasslands biome are closely linked to a mostly continuous ground layer of grasses that contribute moderate to very high levels of primary productivity driven by strongly seasonal water surplus and deficit cycles. The timing of the seasonal cycle of productivity varies with latitude and becomes more variable inter-annually as total rainfall declines. The woody component of the vegetation may be completely absent or may vary to a height and stature that resembles that of a forest. In the tropics and subtropics, productivity peaks in the summer when high rainfall coincides with warm temperatures. At temperate latitudes, summer growth is suppressed by water deficits associated with high evapotranspiration, sometimes exacerbated by weakly seasonal (winter-maximum) rainfall, so that productivity peaks in spring when warming temperatures coincide with high soil moisture accumulated over winter. Co-existence between trees and grasses and between grasses and interstitial forbs is mediated by herbivory and/or fire. These agents are critical in the top- down regulation of grassy ecosystems and in some cases are involved in feedback mechanisms that mediate regime shifts between alternative stable states. Herbivory is the primary driver in highly fertile and productive systems, whereas fire is the primary driver in less fertile and lower productivity systems. Nutrient gradients are exacerbated volatilisation during fire and the loss of nutrients in smoke. The representation of grass species with C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways varies with water availability and temperature over regional and continental climatic gradients. Grasses are rapid responders to seasonal pulses of elevated soil moisture and sustain a complex trophic web with large-bodied mammalian herbivores and their predators. The curing of grasses over the dry season is critical to flammability. Mammal diversity, trophic complexity, and the expression of physical and chemical defences against herbivory also vary with soil fertility. ## ESVD **Grassland/Rangeland biome** comprised of Savanna, Tropical grasslands, Temperate grasslands, Steppe (dry, cold grassland), Other (grassland) ## FEMA ESV Not defined as a land cover / ecosystem type. Referenced in Riparian, Urban Green Open Space and Rural Open Space. ## Other ### ESRI Land Cover “Rangeland”: **Dense Rangeland** – Healthy, closely packed vegetation that is predominantly dense, short (under 5m) woody shrubs with very little to no mixed grass or bare ground cover. May contain small isolated trees. Within and around areas classified as built, this class can also include highly manicured lawns or fields. Defined as a rangeland prediction with a maximum NDVI value greater than or equal to a biome-specific threshold during the given time period. **Sparse Rangeland** – Vegetation that is some mix of grasses and/or dispersed, short, woody scrub, with or without some bare ground cover. May contain small isolated trees. Defined as a rangeland prediction with a maximum NDVI value less than a biome-specific threshold during the given time period. ### USGS “Herbaceous”: **Grassland/Herbaceous** - areas dominated by gramanoid or herbaceous vegetation, generally greater than 80% of total vegetation. These areas are not subject to intensive management such as tilling, but can be utilized for grazing. **Sedge/Herbaceous** - Alaska only areas dominated by sedges and forbs, generally greater than 80% of total vegetation. This type can occur with significant other grasses or other grass like plants, and includes sedge tundra, and sedge tussock tundra. **Lichens** - Alaska only areas dominated by fruticose or foliose lichens generally greater than 80% of total vegetation. **Moss** - Alaska only areas dominated by mosses, generally greater than 80% of total vegetation. ### Dynamic World “Grass” Natural grasslands, livestock pastures, and parks # Shrublands ## IUCN GET 2.0 T3 Shrublands & shrubby woodlands ### Shrublands & shrubby woodlands biome biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Shrublands & shrubby woodlands, Seasonally dry tropical shrublands, Seasonally dry temperate heaths and shrublands, Cool temperate heathlands, Rocky pavements, screes and lava flows. The Shrublands and shrub-dominated woodlands biome includes oligotrophic systems occurring on acidic, sandy soils that are often shallow or skeletal. Classically regarded as ‘azonal’ biomes or ‘pedobiomes’ (i.e. biomes determined by soils), they are scattered across all landmasses outside the polar regions, generally (but not always) closer to continental margins than to interior regions and absent from central Asia. Productivity and biomass are low to moderate and limited by soil fertility. The effect of nutrient poverty on productivity is exacerbated in tropical to mid-latitudes by water deficits occurring during either winter (tropics) or summer (temperate humid and Mediterranean climates) and by low insolation and cold temperatures at higher latitudes. Trophic networks are simple but the major functional components (photoautotrophic plants, decomposers, detritivores, herbivores and predators) are all represented and fuelled by autochthonous energy sources. Shrubs are the dominant primary producers and possess a diversity of leaf and root traits as well as mutualistic relationships with soil microbes that promote the capture and conservation of nutrients. Recurrent disturbance events exert top-down regulation by consuming biomass, releasing resources, and triggering life-history processes (including recruitment and dispersal) in a range of organisms. Fire is the most widespread mechanism, with storms or mass movement of substrate less frequently implicated. Storage effects related to re-sprouting organs and seed banks appear to be important for maintaining plant diversity and hence structure and function in shrublands exposed to recurring fires and water deficits. ## ESVD **Woodland & Shrubland biome** comprised of Tropical wood-& shrublands, Mediterranean wood-& shrubland, Temperate wood-& shrubland, Heathland, Other (woodland and shrubland) ## FEMA ESV Not defined as a land cover / ecosystem type. Referenced in Inland Wetlands. ## Other ### ESRI Land Cover “Rangeland” **Dense Rangeland** – Healthy, closely packed vegetation that is predominantly dense, short (under 5m) woody shrubs with very little to no mixed grass or bare ground cover. May contain small isolated trees. Within and around areas classified as built, this class can also include highly manicured lawns or fields. Defined as a rangeland prediction with a maximum NDVI value greater than or equal to a biome-specific threshold during the given time period. **Sparse Rangeland** – Vegetation that is some mix of grasses and/or dispersed, short, woody scrub, with or without some bare ground cover. May contain small isolated trees. Defined as a rangeland prediction with a maximum NDVI value less than a biome-specific threshold during the given time period. ### USGS “Shrubland” **Dwarf Scrub** - Alaska only areas dominated by shrubs less than 20 centimeters tall with shrub canopy typically greater than 20% of total vegetation. This type is often co-associated with grasses, sedges, herbs, and non-vascular vegetation. **Shrub/Scrub** - areas dominated by shrubs; less than 5 meters tall with shrub canopy typically greater than 20% of total vegetation. This class includes true shrubs, young trees in an early successional stage or trees stunted from environmental conditions. ### Dynamic World “Shrub & Scrub” Mix of small clusters of plants or individual plants dispersed on a landscape that shows exposed soil and rock. Scrub-filled clearings within dense forests that are clearly not taller than trees. Appear grayer/browner due to less dense leaf cover. # Polar & Alpine ## IUCN GET 2.0 T6 Polar-alpine **Polar-alpine biome** is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Ice sheets, glaciers and perennial snowfields, Polar-alpine rocky outcrops, Polar tundra and deserts, Temperate alpine grasslands and shrublands, Tropical alpine grasslands and shrublands. The Polar-alpine biome encompasses the extensive Arctic and Antarctic regions as well as high mountainous areas across all continental land masses. Primary productivity is low or very low, strictly seasonal and limited by conditions of extreme cold associated with low insolation and/or high elevation, further exacerbated by desiccating conditions and high-velocity winds. Low temperatures limit metabolic activity and define the length of growing seasons. Microbial decomposition is slow, leading to peat accumulation in the most productive ecosystems. Regional and local temperature gradients shape ecosystems within the biome. Standing biomass, for example, is low or very low and varies with the severity of cold and insolation. Microbial lifeforms dominate in the coldest systems with perennial snow or ice cover, augmented with crustose lichens, bryophytes, and algae on periodically exposed lithic substrates. Forbs, grasses and dwarf shrubs with slow growth rates and long lifespans become increasingly prominent and may develop continuous cover with increasing insolation and warmer conditions. This vegetation cover provides habitat structure and food for vertebrate and invertebrate consumers and their predators. Trophic webs are simple or truncated and populations of larger vertebrates are generally migratory or itinerant. In these warmer cryogenic systems, snow cover is seasonal (except at equatorial latitudes) and insulates plants and animals that lie dormant beneath it during winter and during their emergence from dormancy prior to spring thaw. While dormancy is a common trait, a diverse range of other physiological, behavioural, and morphological traits that facilitate cold tolerance are also well represented among the biota. ## ESVD Tundra and High mountain & Polar Systems biomes. **Tundra biome** is comprised of Alpine Tundra, Arctic Tundra, and Other (tundra). **High mountain & Polar Systems biome** comprised of High Mountain - forest, High Mountain - grassland, High Mountain - snow and ice, Polar, Other (high mountains and polar) ## FEMA ESV Not defined as a land cover / ecosystem type. ## Other ### ESRI Land Cover: “Snow/Ice” and “Bare Ground” **Snow/Ice**: Large homogenous areas of permanent snow or ice, typically only in mountain areas or highest latitudes; examples: glaciers, permanent snowpack, snow fields. **Bare Ground**: Areas of rock or soil with very sparse to no vegetation for the entire year; large areas of sand and deserts with no to little vegetation; examples: exposed rock or soil, desert and sand dunes, dry salt flats/pans, dried lake beds, mines. ### USGS NLCD “Perennial Ice/Snow” and “Barren” **Perennial Ice/Snow** are areas characterized by a perennial cover of ice and/or snow, generally greater than 25% of total cover. **Barren Land (Rock/Sand/Clay)** are areas of bedrock, desert pavement, scarps, talus, slides, volcanic material, glacial debris, sand dunes, strip mines, gravel pits and other accumulations of earthen material. Generally, vegetation accounts for less than 15% of total cover. # Desert ## IUCN GET 2.0 T5 Deserts and semi-deserts **Deserts and semi-deserts biome** is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Semi-desert steppes, Thorny deserts and semi-deserts, Sclerophyll hot deserts and semi-deserts, Cool deserts and semi-deserts, and Hyper-arid deserts. The Deserts and semi-deserts biome includes low to very low biomass ecosystems occurring in arid or semi-arid climates, principally associated with the subtropical high-pressure belts and major continental rain shadows. Primary productivity is low or very low and dependent on low densities of low-stature photoautotrophs that sustain a complete but sparse trophic web of consumers and predators. Productivity is limited by severe water deficits caused by very low rainfall. Rainfall deficits are exacerbated by extremes of temperature and desiccating winds. Resources, productivity and biomass are highly variable in space and time in response to the amount of annual rainfall, the size of individual rainfall events, and the lateral movement of resources from sources to sinks. Landscape heterogeneity and resource gradients are therefore critical to the persistence of desert biota in the context of highly stochastic, unseasonal temporal patterns of rainfall events that drive ‘pulse and reserve’ or ‘boom-bust’ ecosystem dynamics. There may be high rates of erosion and sedimentation due to the lack of surface stability provided by the sparse vegetation cover and this can be amplified by the activities of large mammals and people. Extreme and prolonged water deficits, punctuated by short episodes of surplus, impose severe physiological constraints on plants and animals, which exhibit a variety of physiological, morphological, behavioural and life-history traits enabling water acquisition and conservation. The life-history spectra of desert systems are polarised between long-lived drought tolerators with low metabolic rates and opportunistic drought evaders with either high mobility or short- lived active phases and long dormant phases. Mobility enables organisms to track transient resources over large distances. Competitive interactions are weak, although herbivory and predation are more evident in the most productive ecosystems and during the decline in resource availability that follows rainfall events. ## ESVD **Deserts biome** includes True desert (sand/rock/salt), Semi-desert, and Other (desert). ## FEMA ESV Not defined as a land cover / ecosystem type. Mentioned in Riparian recreation section. ## Other ### ESRI “Bare Ground” **Bare Ground**: Areas of rock or soil with very sparse to no vegetation for the entire year; large areas of sand and deserts with no to little vegetation; examples: exposed rock or soil, desert and sand dunes, dry salt flats/pans, dried lake beds, mines. ### USGS NLCD “Barren Land” **Barren Land (Rock/Sand/Clay)** are areas of bedrock, desert pavement, scarps, talus, slides, volcanic material, glacial debris, sand dunes, strip mines, gravel pits and other accumulations of earthen material. Generally, vegetation accounts for less than 15% of total cover. # Subterranean ## IUCN GET 2.0 S1 Subterranean lithic systems, S2 Anthropogenic subterranean voids, SF1 Subterranean freshwaters, SF2 Anthropogenic subterranean freshwater, SM1 Subterranean tidal systems ### **Subterranean lithic systems** biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Aerobic caves, Endolithic systems, Anthropogenic subterranean voids. The subterranean lithic biome includes non-aquatic lithic systems beneath the earth’s surface. Sunlight is absent or of insufficient intensity to sustain photosynthesis. There is no standing water and moisture is supplied primarily by seepage through the substrate and may be lost by slow diffusion through the atmosphere to cave openings or by vertical or lateral seepage through the substrate. These physically stable systems exhibit low levels of environmental variability. Rarely, mass movements, for example rock falls, may re-organise the physical structure of subterranean ecosystems. Subterranean ecosystems have truncated trophic structures with no photoautotrophs and few obligate predators. Heterotrophic microbes and invertebrates dominate the biota, while chemoautotrophs are the primary energy assimilators. Most have low metabolic rates and prolonged life histories in response to resource limitations, resulting in low overall productivity. The subterranean biome includes dry caves and endolithic systems distributed throughout the earth’s crust. Incursions of fresh or marine waters generate transitional biomes (SF, SM). ### Anthropogenic subterranean voids biome is comprised one Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Anthropogenic subterranean voids. The Anthropogenic subterranean voids biome includes asingle functional group of ecosystems that owe their genesis to excavation by humans. They include underground mines, transport tunnels, tombs, defence and energy installations, and other infrastructure. Most are very recent ecosystems constructed with earth-moving machinery during the industrial era, but some were constructed manually up to several millennia ago. Productivity is low and energy generally comes from allochthonous sources via connections to the surface, either by atmospheric diffusion or seepage, but some energy is contributed by chemoautotrophic microbes. While sunlight is absent or highly diffuse, some active voids are artificially lit and this may provide sufficient energy to sustain algal autotrophs. Trophic webs are simple and dominated by opportunistic microbes and invertebrates introduced by machinery or directly by humans, or else colonising spontaneously through openings to the surface. The latter may include small mammals that use the voids as refuges or breeding sites. Microbes from external and endolithic sources rapidly colonise newly exposed lithic surfaces and create biofilms that support detritivores and enhance substrate weathering. The stability of artificial subterranean voids varies depending on their substrate and management, with some prone to collapse and structural change after active use ceases. ### Subterranean freshwaters biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Underground streams and pools and Groundwater ecosystems. The Subterranean freshwaters biome includes streams, small lakes and aquifers beneath the earth’s surface and potentially has the largest volume of water of all the freshwater biomes. In the absence of sunlight, these ecosystems rely on allochthonous energy sourced from surface ecosystems via connected waters and in situ chemoautotrophs. Depending on the mode of connectivity to the surface, water flow- through varies from extremely rapid to slow. Highly connected subterranean streams in monsoonal climates undergo seasonal flooding and drying cycles. In contrast, paleo- aquifers are characterised by slow, low-variability seepage over millennial time scales. Inflowing water is the principal source of dissolved oxygen and mineral nutrients, although some nutrients are liberated by in situ weathering of lithic substrates. The water regime largely determines environmental variability in subterranean freshwaters, but these systems may occasionally be influenced by mass movements. The trophic structure of subterranean waters is typically truncated, although photosynthetically inactive, algae and higher-plant propagules may be transient occupants in systems that are connected to the surface. Chemoautotrophic and heterotrophic microbes in biofilms and the water column dominate the trophic web, supporting small invertebrate detritivores and predators. Small predatory fish may occur in streams and lakes, where voids in the subsurface are of sufficient size. Productivity, metabolic rates, life histories and the diversity of the biota all reflect resource scarcity but may vary depending on water source. Insular systems exhibit high levels of endemism. ### Anthropogenic subterranean freshwater biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Water pipes and subterranean canals, Flooded mines and other voids. The Artificial subterranean freshwaters biome includes aquatic systems in underground canals, drains, sewers, water pipes and flooded mines constructed by humans. These are usually well connected to surface waters. The availability of resources is largely a function of source waters and the water regime, which varies from permanent to intermittent with low to high flow velocity or, in the case of flooded mines, negligible flow. Sunlight is absent or, if it diffuses through vents and portals (as in some canals), it is generally too dim to support photosynthesis. Algae may nonetheless be transported through these systems depending on the water of source. Although primary productivity is low and energy is supplied from allochthonous sources, secondary productivity by heterotrophic microbes in biofilms and in the water column may be high in sewers and drains where organic Carbon, nutrients and dissolved oxygen are abundant. This may support several tiers of detritivores and predators, including microscopic invertebrates, macro-invertebrates, and small vertebrates, including rodents and fish. Anaerobic bacteria may be important components of the trophic network where organic Carbon and nutrients are abundant but dissolved oxygen is scarce due to either low aeration or high microbial activity. In water supply pipes, low levels of organic carbon and nutrients exacerbate constraints on productivity imposed by the absence of light. Trophic webs within pipes are truncated and simple, and the mostly transitory biota reflects that of source waters. ### Subterranean tidal systems biome is comprised these Ecosystem Functional Groups (EFG): Anchialine caves, Anchialine pools, and Sea caves. The subterranean tidal biome includes coastal pools and subterranean voids with a partially or entirely submerged connection to marine waters. Like all other subterranean ecosystems, sunlight is absent or too dim to sustain photosynthesis. Marine shelf ecosystems (M1), terrestrial aquifers (SF1) and surface coastal systems (T, MT) connected to these subterranean systems are their sources of allochthonous energy, nutrients and oxygenation. Food and energy availability are influenced by in situ microbial processing (biogeochemical transformation) of these allochthonous organic matter inputs. The marine interface, a typical feature of coastal aquifers and subterranean estuaries, also generates a marked salinity gradient is the primary zone of biogeochemical cycling. In carbonate and volcanic geologies, the salinity gradient can often be observed in the flooded pools, voids, and caves as a halocline (a sharp salinity gradient in the water column), which is not present in other subterranean environments. In comparison to other subterranean ecosystems, diverse assemblages of chemoautotrophic and heterotrophic microbes, as well as scavengers, filter feeders and predators. Physiological traits enabling osmotic regulation allow some species to transit across haloclines between the fresh- and saline waters. In dark sections of the subterranean marine systems where photoautotrophs are absent, trophic webs are truncated. Some of the subterranean marine biota belong to lineages otherwise restricted to the deep sea floor (M3), and share traits with those in other low- productivity, dark biomes, including depigmentation, reduced visual organs, increased tactile and chemical sensitivity, low fecundity, long lifespans, and slow metabolism and growth rates. Tides are an important means of hydrological mixing, resource flux, biotic dispersal and perturbation. In subterranean tidal systems with more direct connections to the sea, marine suspension feeders, particularly sponges and other sessile invertebrates, are dominant. Farther into marine and anchialine caves, where tidal flushing and water exchange diminishes or disappears, the fauna consists of stygobitic crustaceans, annelids and several other faunal groups (i.e. strictly subterranean aquatic fauna that complete their entire life in this environment). ## ESVD **Inland Un- or Sparsely Vegetated biome** is comprised of Underground systems, Inland rock formations, and Other (inland un- or sparsely vegetated) ## FEMA ESV Not defined as a land cover / ecosystem type. # Ecosystem Services Classification {% hint style="info" %} The BASIN [Core Benefits Framework](/core-benefits/core-benefits-framework) and the [RealValue of Natural Capital ](/realvalue/why-put-a-value-on-nature)were built based on the process and supporting materials found in this Appendix. {% endhint %} ## Ecosystem Services Classification & Valuation We evaluated [over 50](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vQwj56Qg699KpORHt_jm3YA43PAvEbwJuETykHpRhxM7YQ0ErbGIKcPZ0bc0a6R3mQlLx4rDGNTPCSy/pubhtml?gid=2071800547\&single=true) ecosystem services classifications, ecosystem services valuations, natural capital and other impact/ESG benefits frameworks, narrowing our focus to nine key systems for cross-reference. Our comparative analysis of these systems revealed a consistent set of 19 top-level ecosystem services that were commonly referenced and utilized across all studies. ## Ecosystem Services Frameworks The nine systems selected for cross-reference were chosen based on their prominence and frequent citation across various datasets. These systems are particularly relevant for ecosystem service valuation (ESV), corporate financial and ESG disclosures, applicability to real assets valuation as well as BASIN's conservation and restoration investment model. Several of them are grounded in seminal works like the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and TEEB, further attesting to their applicability and importance. ## Cross Reference Table {% embed url="" fullWidth="true" %} Source: [BASIN RealValue Worksheet - Public](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1-Ho1C5J2TCFnSJnkSbNXvBldMIUZGZyll3e6kSwazT4/edit?usp=sharing) {% endembed %} # Ecosystem Services Frameworks # System of Environmental-Economic Accounting - Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) Source: [United Nations et al. 2021](https://seea.un.org/ecosystem-accounting) {% hint style="info" %} “*The SEEA EA provides a reference list of ecosystem services including 33 main ecosystem services and agreed labels and descriptions. This reference list will support the development of methods, the sharing of knowledge and experience and the comparison of estimates of ecosystem services. The reference list was developed in collaboration with experts who have led the development of a range of ecosystem service classifications and typologies including CICES, NESCS, TEEB and IPBES-NCP.*” - UN {% endhint %} The SEEA EA, developed under UN guidance, is a statistical framework that integrates both economic and biophysical data to better assess and value ecosystem services and human impacts on the environment. The framework applies the accounting principles of the 2008 SNA to harmonize environmental and economic data, facilitating more informed decision-making in both domains. It provides a comprehensive view of the relationship between the environment and the economy, complementing the SEEA Central Framework. One of its key features is the accounting structure that includes both stocks and flows, allowing for an integrated, coherent, and consistent set of data. This approach aims for regular and comparable measurements over time. ## Ecosystem Services Categories Provisioning services; Regulating and maintenance services; Cultural services; and Flows related to non-use values. ## Ecosystem Services Classified {% hint style="info" %} From SEEA EA Table 6.3: Reference list of selected ecosystem services. {% endhint %} Biomass provisioning services Genetic Material services Water supply Other provisioning services Global climate regulation services Rainfall pattern regulation services (at sub-continental scale) Local (micro and meso) climate regulation services Air filtration services Soil quality regulation services Soil and sediment retention services Solid waste remediation services Water purification services (water quality regulation) Water flow regulation services Flood control services Storm mitigation services Noise attenuation services Pollination services Biological control services Nursery population and habitat maintenance services Other regulating and maintenance services Cultural services Recreation-related services Visual amenity services Education, scientific and research services Spiritual, artistic and symbolic services Other cultural services Ecosystem and species appreciation
# Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services(CICES) V5.1 Source: [CICES](https://cices.eu/) The updated Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) Version 5.1 aims to better classify ecosystem contributions to human well-being. Developed through extensive consultations and compatible with its predecessor, V4.3, the new version refines definitions and includes both biotic and abiotic aspects of ecosystems. It maintains its hierarchical structure to categorize services into provisioning, regulation, and cultural benefits. Importantly, CICES V5.1 is designed not only to classify ecosystem services but also to serve as a reference framework that allows for translation between different ecosystem service classification systems, such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) and The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB). {% hint style="success" %} Near the end of our research we stumbled upon a SEEA CICES TEEB MA IPBES Cross Reference from the [UN](https://seea.un.org/sites/seea.un.org/files/documents/EA/seea_ea_online_supplement_ecosystem_services_reference_list_crosswalk.xlsx) which we have [**formatted for clarity here**](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1sY4VxRH8FTUapYnlU1Ir-AmcFlCf-xpswd2lVtu4Bgc/edit?usp=sharing). {% endhint %} ## Ecosystem Service Categories Provisioning; Regulation and Maintenance; Cultural. Then further classification of biotic and abiotic. ## Ecosystem Services Classified Cultivated Aquatic Plants for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Genetic Material From Animals Genetic Material from Plants, Algae or Fungi Genetic Material from Organisms Cultivated Terrestrial Plants for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Wild Plants (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Reared Aquatic Animals for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Surface Water Used for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Wild Animals (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Reared Animals For Nutrition, Materials or Energy Atmospheric Composition & Conditions Intellectual & Representative Interactions with Natural Environment Mediation of Nuisances of Anthropogenic Origin Physical & Experiential Interactions with Natural Environment Pest & Disease Control Water Conditions Other Biotic Characteristics That Have a Non-Use Value Spiritual, Symbolic & Other Interactions with Natural Environment Groundwater used for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Mediation Of Wastes or Toxic Substances of Anthropogenic Origin by Living Processes Regulation of Baseline Flows & Extreme Events Lifecycle Maintenance, Habitat & Gene Pool Protection Regulation of Soil Quality ## Full List from CICES Appendix 1: Overview of CICES V5.1 ### Category: Provisioning #### Cultivated terrestrial plants for nutrition, materials or energy Name Used (Class): Cultivated terrestrial plants (including fungi, algae) grown for nutritional purposes Metrics (Class Type): Crops by amount, type (e.g. cereals, root crops, soft fruit, etc.) Name Used (Class): Fibres and other materials from cultivated plants, fungi, algae and bacteria for direct use or processing Metrics (Class Type): Material by amount, type, use, media (land, soil, freshwater, marine) Name Used (Class): Cultivated plants (including fungi, algae) grown as a source of energy Metrics (Class Type): By amount, type, source #### Cultivated aquatic plants for nutrition, materials or energy Name Used (Class): Cultivated plants grown for \*\*nutritional\*\* purposes by in- situ aquaculture Metrics (Class Type): Plants, algae by amount, type
Name Used (Class): Cultivated plants grown for \*\*material\*\* purposes by in- situ aquaculture (excluding genetic materials) Metrics (Class Type): Plants, algae by amount, type
Name Used (Class): Cultivated plants grown as a source of \*\*energy\*\* by in-situ aquaculture Metrics (Class Type): Plants, algae by amount, type #### Reared animals for nutrition, materials or energy Name Used (Class): Animals reared to provide \*\*nutrition\*\* Metrics (Class Type): Animals, products by amount, type (e.g. beef, dairy) Name Used (Class): Fibres and other \*\*materials\*\* from reared animals for direct use or processing (excluding genetic materials) Metrics (Class Type): Material by amount, type, use, media (land, soil, freshwater, marine) Name Used (Class): Animals reared to provide \*\*energy\*\* (including mechanical) Metrics (Class Type): By amount, type, source #### Reared aquatic animals for nutrition, materials or energy Name Used (Class): Animals reared by in-situ aquaculture for nutritional purposes Metrics (Class Type): Animals by amount, type Name Used (Class): Animals reared by in-situ aquaculture for material purposes (excluding genetic materials) Metrics (Class Type): Animals by amount, type
Name Used (Class): Animals reared by in-situ aquaculture as an energy source Metrics (Class Type): Animals by amount, type #### Surface water used for nutrition, materials or energy Name Used (Class): Surface water for drinking Metrics (Class Type): By amount, type, source Name Used (Class): Surface water used as a material (non- drinking purposes) Metrics (Class Type): By amount & source Name Used (Class): Freshwater surface water used as an energy source Metrics (Class Type): By amount, type, source Name Used (Class): Coastal and marine water used as energy source Metrics (Class Type): By amount, type, source #### Ground water for used for nutrition, materials or energy Name Used (Class): Ground water for drinking Metrics (Class Type): By amount, type, source Name Used (Class): Ground water used as a material (non- drinking purposes) Metrics (Class Type): By amount & source
Name Used (Class): Ground water used as an energy source Metrics (Class Type): By amount & source #### Mineral substances used for nutrition, materials or energy Name Used (Class): Mineral substances used for nutrition Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type Name Used (Class): Mineral substances used for material purposes Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type Name Used (Class): Mineral substances used for as an energy source Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type #### Non-mineral substances or ecosystem properties used for nutrition, materials or energy Name Used (Class): Non-mineral substances or ecosystem properties used for nutrition Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type Name Used (Class): Non-mineral substances used for materials Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type
Name Used (Class): Wind energy Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type Name Used (Class): Solar energy Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type Name Used (Class): Geothermal Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type ### Category: Regulation and Maintenance #### Mediation of wastes or toxic substances of anthropogenic origin by living processes \ Name Used (Class): Bio-remediation by micro-organisms, algae, plants, and animals Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or by waste or subsistence type
Name Used (Class): Filtration/sequestration/storage/accumulation by micro-organisms, algae, plants, and animals Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system, or by water or substance type #### Mediation of nuisances of anthropogenic origin Name Used (Class): Smell reduction Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system Name Used (Class): Noise attenuation Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system Name Used (Class): Visual screening Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system Name Used (Class): Mediation of nuisances by abiotic structures or processes Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type #### Regulation of baseline flows and extreme events Name Used (Class): Control of erosion rates Metrics (Class Type): By reduction in risk, area protected Name Used (Class): Buffering and attenuation of mass movement Metrics (Class Type): By reduction in risk, area protected Name Used (Class): Hydrological cycle and water flow regulation (Including flood control) Metrics (Class Type): By depth/volumes Name Used (Class): Storm protection Metrics (Class Type): By reduction in risk, area protected Name Used (Class): Fire protection Metrics (Class Type): By reduction in risk, area protected Name Used (Class): Mass flows Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type Name Used (Class): Liquid flows Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type Name Used (Class): Gaseous flows Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type #### Lifecycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection Name Used (Class): Pollination (or 'gamete' dispersal in a marine context) Metrics (Class Type): By amount and pollinator Name Used (Class): Seed dispersal Metrics (Class Type): By amount and dispersal agent Name Used (Class): Maintaining nursery populations and habitats (Including gene pool protection) Metrics (Class Type): By amount and source #### Pest and disease control Name Used (Class): Pest control (including invasive species) Metrics (Class Type): By reduction in incidence, risk, area protected by type of living system Name Used (Class): Disease control Metrics (Class Type): By reduction in incidence, risk, area protected by type of living system #### Regulation of soil quality Name Used (Class): Weathering processes and their effect on soil quality Metrics (Class Type): By amount/concentration and source Name Used (Class): Decomposition and fixing processes and their effect on soil quality Metrics (Class Type): By amount/concentration and source #### Water conditions Name Used (Class): Regulation of the chemical condition of freshwaters by living processes Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system Name Used (Class): Regulation of the chemical condition of salt waters by living processes Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system #### Atmospheric composition and conditions Name Used (Class): Regulation of chemical composition of atmosphere Metrics (Class Type): By contribution of type of living system to amount, concentration or climatic parameter Name Used (Class): Regulation of temperature and humidity, including ventilation and transpiration Metrics (Class Type): By contribution of type of living system to amount, concentration or climatic parameter #### Mediation of waste, toxics and other nuisances by non- living processes Name Used (Class): Dilution by freshwater and marine ecosystems Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type Name Used (Class): Dilution by atmosphere Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type Name Used (Class): Mediation by other chemical or physical means (e.g. via Filtration, sequestration, storage or accumulation) Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type #### Maintenance of physical, chemical, abiotic conditions Name Used (Class): Maintenance and regulation by inorganic natural chemical and physical processes Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type ### Category: Cultural #### Physical and experiential interactions with natural environment Name Used (Class): Characteristics of living systems that that enable activities promoting health, recuperation or enjoyment through active or immersive interactions Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Characteristics of living systems that enable activities promoting health, recuperation or enjoyment through passive or observational interactions Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Natural, abiotic characteristics of nature that enable active or passive physical and experiential interactions Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type #### Intellectual and representative interactions with natural environment Name Used (Class): Characteristics of living systems that enable scientific investigation or the creation of traditional ecological knowledge Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Characteristics of living systems that enable education and training Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Characteristics of living systems that are resonant in terms of culture or heritage Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Characteristics of living systems that enable aesthetic experiences Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Natural, abiotic characteristics of nature that enable intellectual interactions Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type #### Spiritual, symbolic and other interactions with natural environment Name Used (Class): Elements of living systems that have symbolic meaning Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Elements of living systems that have sacred or religious meaning Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Elements of living systems used for entertainment or representation Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Natural, abiotic characteristics of nature that enable spiritual, symbolic and other interactions Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type #### Other biotic characteristics that have a non-use value Name Used (Class): Characteristics or features of living systems that have an existence value Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Characteristics or features of living systems that have an bequest value Metrics (Class Type): By type of living system or environmental setting Name Used (Class): Natural, abiotic characteristics or features of nature that have either an existence or bequest value Metrics (Class Type): Amount by type
# Ecosystem Services Valuation Database (ESVD) Source: [Final report June 2020](https://www.es-partnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ESVD_Global-Update-FINAL-Report-June-2020.pdf) {% hint style="success" %} The ESVD is a follow-up to the “The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity” (TEEB) database which contained over 1,300 data points from 267 case studies on monetary values of ecosystem services across all biomes. {% endhint %} The Ecosystem Services Valuation Database (ESVD) aims to support informed decision-making in ecosystem management by providing robust, monetized data on the economic benefits and costs of ecosystems and biodiversity. The database currently holds 9,500 value records from more than 1,100 studies, covering various biomes and geographic regions. By presenting these values in monetary terms, the ESVD helps internalize the significance of nature in policy and management decisions. ## Ecosystem Services Categories Provisioning; Regulating; Habitat; Cultural ## Ecosystem Services Classified Water Climate Regulation Air Quality Regulation Moderation of Extreme Events Food Medicinal Resources Genetic Resources Regulation of Water Flows Ornamental Resources Raw Materials Opportunities For Recreation & Tourism Spiritual Experience Maintenance of Soil Fertility Inspiration For Culture, Art & Design Maintenance of Species Life Cycles (Nursery) Aesthetic Information Existence & Bequest Values Information For Cognitive Development Waste Treatment Erosion Prevention Pollination Biological Control Maintenance of Genetic Diversity # FEMA Ecosystem Service Value Updates Source: FEMA [June 2022](https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema\\_ecosystem-service-value-updates\\_2022.pdf) {% hint style="info" %} Primarily utilizes the seminal Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2001) categories. {% endhint %} FEMA has updated its approach to hazard mitigation by incorporating Ecosystem Service Values (ESV) into its Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA) Toolkit, measured in terms of dollars per acre per year ($/ac/yr). These updates extend across nine different land cover and ecosystem types and 14 categories of ecosystem services. The inclusion of ESV not only makes the toolkit more comprehensive but also simplifies the application process for subapplicants seeking to implement Nature-Based Solutions (NBS). Recent policy changes have expanded eligible NBS activities and eliminated previous benefit-cost ratio requirements, making it easier for projects focused on ecological benefits to receive funding. This marks a shift towards more sustainable and equitable hazard mitigation strategies. ## Ecosystem Services Categories Provisioning; Regulating; Supporting; Information ## Ecosystem Services Classified {% hint style="success" %} The 14 in **bold** have calculated economic values in $/ac/yr. {% endhint %} Energy and Raw Materials **Food Provisioning** Medicinal Resources Ornamental Resources Water Storage **Air Quality** **Biological Control** **Climate Regulation** **Hazard Risk Reduction** **Pollination** Soil Formation Soil Quality **Erosion Control** **Water Filtration** **Water Supply** **Habitat** Nutrient Cycling **Aesthetic Value** **Existence Value** Cultural Value **Research and Education** **Recreation/Tourism** # IPBES Global Assessment of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (NCP) Source: [IPBES 2019](https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment) The **IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services** highlights the urgent decline of nature and its vital contributions to humanity, categorized as **Nature's Contributions to People (NCP)**. The report emphasizes that human activities, driven by various socio-economic factors, have significantly altered 75% of Earth's land, leading to biodiversity loss and diminished ecosystem functions. Despite this, nature remains essential for achieving Sustainable Development Goals. A transformational change is needed, involving systemic shifts in how we value and interact with nature. This change must consider not just stocks—current conditions of biodiversity and ecosystems—but also flows, the dynamic processes that maintain these systems, often guided by international governance such as the UN framework. The report argues that sustainable, equitable solutions are still attainable, but require immediate, concerted efforts. ## Ecosystem Services Categories 2013 version used: Provisioning; Regulating; Cultural; and Nature’s Gifts 2017 moves to NCP and uses: Regulating NCP; Non-material NCP; Material NCP ## Ecosystem Services Classified Formation, Protection & Decontamination of Soils & Sediments Regulation of Freshwater & Coastal Water Quality Regulation of Air Quality Regulation of Climate Medicinal, Biochemical & Genetic Resources Materials & Assistance Energy Regulation of Detrimental Organisms & Biological Processes Regulation of Ocean Acidification Supporting Identities Regulation of Hazards & Extreme Events Maintenance of Options Habitat Creation & Maintenance Physical & Psychological Experiences Food & Feed Pollination & Dispersal of Seeds & Other Propagules Learning & Inspiration Regulation of Freshwater Quantity, Location & Timing # Exploring Natural Capital Opportunities, Risks and Exposure (ENCORE) Source: [ENCORE](https://encorenature.org/en) {% hint style="info" %} ENCORE has a business/industry focus: “Ecosystem services are the links between nature and business. Each of these services represent a benefit that nature provides to enable or facilitate business production processes.” {% endhint %} ENCORE is a free online tool aimed at helping organizations, especially financial institutions, understand their risks and dependencies related to natural capital. The tool breaks down how different economic sectors and processes affect nature. It is particularly useful for identifying nature-related risks in lending, underwriting, and investments in high-risk industries. A specialized biodiversity module focuses on the agriculture and mining sectors, helping align activities with global nature goals. The tool serves as an introductory guide to frameworks like the one by the Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD). The ENCORE Partnership, consisting of Global Canopy, UNEP FI, and UNEP-WCMC, maintains and updates the tool. This partnership was formerly known as The Natural Capital Finance Alliance (NCFA). ## Ecosystem Services Categories Ecosystem services were classified according to the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) which comprises a five-level hierarchical structure, for example: Section (e.g. Provisioning), Division (e.g. Nutrition), Group (e.g. Terrestrial plants and animals for food), Class (e.g. crops), and Class type (e.g. wheat). Cultural ecosystem services were not considered in this project as they are not considered to be direct inputs or to enable production processes. ## Ecosystem Services Classified Filtration Fibers & Other Materials Disease Control Climate Regulation Ventilation Water Flow Maintenance Ground Water Buffering & Attenuation of Mass Flows Water Quality Mediation of Sensory Impacts Bioremediation Soil Quality Pollination Dilution By Atmosphere & Ecosystems Surface Water Animal-Based Energy Mass Stabilisation & Erosion Control Maintain Nursery Habitats Genetic Materials Pest Control Flood & Storm Protection # TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Source: Recommendations of the Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD) [September 2023](https://tnfd.global/publication/recommendations-of-the-taskforce-on-nature-related-financial-disclosures/) The Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD) Recommendations outline requirements and best practices for disclosing nature-related financial data. Focused on four pillars—governance, strategy, risk and impact management, and metrics and targets—the document offers 14 specific disclosures. It emphasizes the crucial role of nature's health in business and finance and aims to help organizations integrate these considerations into decision-making and risk management. {% hint style="warning" %} TNFD appears to utilize and combine both SEEA - EA and IUCN GET 2.0 as well as other additions such as "Land". Further clarification is needed from TNFD as to their methodology. {% endhint %} ## Ecosystem Services Categories Environmental assets; Provisioning services; Regulating & maintenance services; and Cultural services ## Ecosystem Services Classified Genetic Material Spiritual, Artistic & Symbiotic Services Education, Scientific & Research Services Other Cultural Services Water Supply Recreation Related Services Other Provisioning Services Pollination Visual Amenity Services Biomass Provisioning Local (Micro & Meso) Climate Regulation Global Climate Regulation Solid Waste Remediation Biological Control Air Filtration Nursery Population & Habitat Maintenance Storm Mitigation Rainfall Pattern Regulation Soil & Sediment Retention Water Flow Regulation Water Purification Flood Mitigation Soil Quality Regulation Noise Attenuation Other Regulating & Maintenance Services Subterranean Terrestrial Ecosystem Mineral & Energy Resources Terrestrial (Land Based) Ecosystems Land Cultivated Biological Resources Renewable Energy Resources Subterranean - Freshwater Ecosystems Freshwater Ecosystems Water Resources Marine Underwater Mineral & Energy Resources Subterranean Marine Ecosystems Atmospheric Systems # Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) Source: [InVEST](https://naturalcapitalproject.stanford.edu/software) InVEST is a free, open-source software suite developed by the Natural Capital Project of Stanford University. It helps map and value ecosystem services that are crucial for human well-being, such as food production and water purification. The tool is used by a variety of entities like governments and corporations to evaluate trade-offs among multiple uses of natural resources. It offers models for different types of ecosystems like terrestrial, freshwater, and marine. The tool produces spatially-explicit models, outputting data in maps that can be tailored for local, regional, or global analyses. The models account for both the supply of services from ecosystems and the location of beneficiaries. Outputs can be in biophysical or economic terms, such as tons of carbon sequestered or its net present value. The Natural Capital Project aims to motivate greater investment in natural capital and incorporate its value into decision-making processes, aiming to shift the paradigm to one where natural capital is better understood and managed. ## Ecosystem Service Categories InVest is a specialized tool that enables decision makers to assess quantified tradeoffs associated with alternative management choices and to identify areas where investment in natural capital can enhance human development and conservation. The toolset includes distinct ecosystem service models designed for terrestrial, freshwater, marine, and coastal ecosystems. ## Ecosystem Services Classified Offshore Wind Energy Habitat Risk Assessment Coastal Vulnerability Crop Pollination Urban Cooling Sediment Retention Scenic Quality Reservoir Hydropower Production (Water Yield) Crop Production Water Purification Recreation Wave Energy Carbon Urban Stormwater Retention Seasonal Water Yield Coastal Blue Carbon Urban Flood Risk Mitigation Habitat Quality # Swiss Re Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Index (BES) Source: [Swiss Re BES Index](https://www.swissre.com/institute/research/topics-and-risk-dialogues/climate-and-natural-catastrophe-risk/expertise-publication-biodiversity-and-ecosystems-services.html#/) A business case for reinsurance and measuring the value of nature The Swiss Re Institute Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (BES) Index assesses which economic sectors are most reliant on nature and evaluates the exposure each country has to BES decline. {% hint style="info" %} References the IPBES - NCP framework but focuses on ES related risks and dependencies of the reinsurance and insurance industries. {% endhint %} ## Ecosystem Services Categories Does not break down by category. Does include “provision” after certain classes. ## Ecosystem Services Classified Habitat Intactness Air Quality & Local Climate Water Security Soil Fertility Pollination Water Quality Erosion Control Coastal Protection Food Provision Timber Provision # Ecosystem Services Classification Our comparative analysis of the selected ecosystem services frameworks revealed a consistent set of 19 top-level ecosystem services that were commonly referenced and utilized across all studies. These frameworks varied in scope ranging between 10 to 27 key ecosystem services. The 19 services identified as consistent across all frameworks are: ## Common Ecosystem Services Classes | Raw Materials | Food | | -------------------------- | --------------------------------- | | Energy | Water Security (supply & storage) | | Soil | Medicinal & Genetic | | Climate Regulation | Air Quality | | Water Quality (filtration) | Hazard Risk Reduction | | Pollination | Erosion Control | | Biological Control | Habitat | | Recreation & Tourism | Research & Education | | Aesthetic | Cultural & Spiritual | | Existence | | For each ecosystem service and corresponding framework, we have compiled the following information where available: * Name Used * Service Category (e.g., Provisioning, Supporting) * Definition * Economic Value Calculated * Applicable Valuation Methods (e.g., Travel Cost, Hedonic Pricing, Contingent Valuation) * Metrics for Quantitative and Qualitative Assessment As the top level categories varied across frameworks, we have roughly sorted them by Provisioning, Regulating, and Cultural Services.

# Raw Materials ## SEEA EA Name Used: Biomass provisioning services Service Category: Provisioning Definition: by sub-category See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. Name Used: Crop provisioning services Definition: The ecosystem contributions to the growth of cultivated plants that are harvested for various uses including food and fiber production, fodder, and energy. Name Used: Grazed biomass provisioning services Definition: The ecosystem contributions to the growth of grazed biomass that serves as an input for the growth of cultivated livestock. Excludes the ecosystem contributions to crops used for livestock fodder. Name Used: Livestock provisioning services Definition: The ecosystem contributions to the growth of cultivated livestock and livestock products like meat, milk, eggs, wool, and leather. Name Used: Aquaculture provisioning services Definition: The ecosystem contributions to the growth of animals and plants in aquaculture facilities that are harvested for various uses. Name Used: Wood provisioning services Definition: The ecosystem contributions to the growth of trees and other woody biomass that are harvested for various uses like timber production and energy. Name Used: Wild fish and other natural aquatic biomass provisioning services Definition: The ecosystem contributions to the growth of fish and other aquatic biomass that are captured in uncultivated production contexts for various uses, primarily food production. Name Used: Wild animals, plants and other biomass provisioning services Definition: The ecosystem contributions to the growth of wild animals, plants and other biomass that are captured and harvested in uncultivated production contexts for various uses. Includes non-wood forest products and services related to hunting, trapping, and bio-prospecting activities. ## CICES Name Used: Cultivated Aquatic Plants for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: the in-situ aquaculture of plants and algae for three primary purposes: nutritional consumption, material extraction, and energy production. Regardless of the end-use, these cultivated plants are quantified by type and amount, serving as metrics for their respective categories. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Cultivated Terrestrial Plants for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: the intentional growth of terrestrial plants, fungi, and algae for various applications. These include nutritional purposes, where crops are classified by amount and type such as cereals or soft fruits; material purposes, where fibers and other materials are categorized by amount, type, use, and media like land or freshwater; and energy production, quantified by the amount and type of biomass produced. These cultivated plants serve as essential resources, each measured by specific metrics to assess their respective contributions. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Wild Plants (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Wild Plants (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Wild Animals (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Wild Animals (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition
Name Used: Reared Animals For Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Reared Animals for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy refers to the practice of raising animals for various purposes, including food, materials, and energy production. When reared for nutrition, animals and their by-products are quantified by amount and type, such as beef or dairy. For material purposes, fibers and other materials obtained from these animals are measured by amount, type, use, and the media they are derived from, such as land or water. Animals reared for energy, including mechanical energy, are also categorized and quantified by amount, type, and source. These practices underscore the multi-faceted contributions that reared animals make to human society and various industries. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Reared Aquatic Animals for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Reared Aquatic Animals for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy refers to the cultivation of aquatic animals through in-situ aquaculture for various end-uses. When raised for nutritional purposes, these animals are quantified by amount and type. For material applications, excluding genetic materials, the same metrics of amount and type are used. Animals reared as an energy source are also categorized and measured by amount and type. This illustrates the multiple roles that aquacultured animals serve, from providing food and materials to acting as a source of energy. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Surface Water Used for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Surface Water Used for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy encompasses the various applications of surface water resources, including freshwater and coastal or marine waters. When used for drinking, the water is quantified by its amount, type, and source. For material uses that don't include drinking, metrics involve the amount and source of the water. In the context of energy, freshwater surface water and coastal or marine water are both accounted for, measured by their amount, type, and source. This highlights the essential role of surface water in meeting diverse human needs, from sustenance and industrial applications to energy generation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Ground water used for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Ground Water Used for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy refers to the utilization of subterranean water reserves for various applications. This includes ground water used for drinking, quantified by the amount, type, and source; ground water used for material purposes other than drinking, measured by the amount and source; and ground water utilized as an energy source, also quantified by the amount and source. These categories reflect the versatile roles that ground water plays in meeting diverse human needs, from hydration and material production to energy generation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Raw materials Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Raw materials as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include fibers, timber, fuel wood and charcoal, fodder, fertilizer, sand, rock, gravel, biomass fuels, other raw materials, and unspecified raw materials. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 323 specific to raw materials. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Energy and Raw Materials Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Providing fuel, fiber, fertilizer, minerals, and energy Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: n/a ## IPBES - NCP Name Used: Materials, companionship and labor Service Category: Material NCP (Materials And Assistance) Definition: Production of materials derived from organisms for construction, clothing, printing, ornamental purposes. Live organisms used for decoration, transport, and labor. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Extent of agricultural land—potential land for material production; Extent of forested land ## ENCORE Name Used: Fibres and other materials Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Fibres and other materials from plants, algae, and animals are directly used or processed for a variety of purposes. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Food production, raw materials ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Crop Production Service Category: Agriculture/Nutrition Definition: The InVEST Crop Production models estimate crop yield and nutrient value for a fixed set of crops, using user-supplied landcover information. The models consider the impact of climate and optionally fertilizer rates to evaluate crop yield. The aim is to explore the economic and nutritional benefits of different cropping systems while also assessing their impact on ecosystem services. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Estimates of crop yield, comparison of economic returns for different cropping systems Metrics: Crop yield per hectare, nutritional information for 33 macro and micronutrients, quality control via observed results from the same region. The Percentile Model covers 175 crops worldwide, listing yields for the 25th, 50th, 75th, and 95th percentiles in each of the crop's climate bins. The Regression Model focuses on 10 staple crops and requires additional data on fertilizer application rates. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Timber Provision Service Category: Provisioning Service Definition: The capacity of forest ecosystems to provide timber as a direct input for production and human use. The production of timber impacts quality of life by providing materials for shelter, energy, various industries, and creating employment and income. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Forest Cover %; The maximum capacity of a forest to provide timber for harvesting is quantified using the indicator "Forest Cover," defined as the percentage of each 1 km^2 with tree cover (vegetation taller than 5m in height).
# Food ## SEEA EA SEEA EA groups food under Biomass provisioning services. We group Food as a flow from Real Assets and thus have not separated out here. Please see the Biomass provisioning services section in Raw Materials. ## CICES Name Used: Cultivated Aquatic Plants for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: the in-situ aquaculture of plants and algae for three primary purposes: nutritional consumption, material extraction, and energy production. Regardless of the end-use, these cultivated plants are quantified by type and amount, serving as metrics for their respective categories. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition
Name Used: Cultivated Terrestrial Plants for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: the intentional growth of terrestrial plants, fungi, and algae for various applications. These include nutritional purposes, where crops are classified by amount and type such as cereals or soft fruits; material purposes, where fibers and other materials are categorized by amount, type, use, and media like land or freshwater; and energy production, quantified by the amount and type of biomass produced. These cultivated plants serve as essential resources, each measured by specific metrics to assess their respective contributions. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Wild Plants (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Wild Plants (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Wild Animals (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Wild Animals (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Reared Animals For Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Reared Animals for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy refers to the practice of raising animals for various purposes, including food, materials, and energy production. When reared for nutrition, animals and their by-products are quantified by amount and type, such as beef or dairy. For material purposes, fibers and other materials obtained from these animals are measured by amount, type, use, and the media they are derived from, such as land or water. Animals reared for energy, including mechanical energy, are also categorized and quantified by amount, type, and source. These practices underscore the multi-faceted contributions that reared animals make to human society and various industries. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Reared Aquatic Animals for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Reared Aquatic Animals for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy refers to the cultivation of aquatic animals through in-situ aquaculture for various end-uses. When raised for nutritional purposes, these animals are quantified by amount and type. For material applications, excluding genetic materials, the same metrics of amount and type are used. Animals reared as an energy source are also categorized and measured by amount and type. This illustrates the multiple roles that aquacultured animals serve, from providing food and materials to acting as a source of energy. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Surface Water Used for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Surface Water Used for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy encompasses the various applications of surface water resources, including freshwater and coastal or marine waters. When used for drinking, the water is quantified by its amount, type, and source. For material uses that don't include drinking, metrics involve the amount and source of the water. In the context of energy, freshwater surface water and coastal or marine water are both accounted for, measured by their amount, type, and source. This highlights the essential role of surface water in meeting diverse human needs, from sustenance and industrial applications to energy generation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Ground water used for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Ground Water Used for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy refers to the utilization of subterranean water reserves for various applications. This includes ground water used for drinking, quantified by the amount, type, and source; ground water used for material purposes other than drinking, measured by the amount and source; and ground water utilized as an energy source, also quantified by the amount and source. These categories reflect the versatile roles that ground water plays in meeting diverse human needs, from hydration and material production to energy generation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Food Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Food as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include fish, meat, plants or vegetable food, and NTFPs (Non-Timber Forest Products) specifically for food, and ‘other’ food. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 473 specific to food. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Food Provisioning Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Producing crops, fish, game, and fruits Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Avoided Cost and Market Price Metrics: cost avoidance value is based on the production savings to farmers and improved farm profitability ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Food and feed Service Category: Material NCP (Materials And Assistance) Definition: Production of food from wild, managed, or domesticated organisms, such as fish, bushmeat and edible invertebrates, beef, poultry, game, dairy products, edible crops, wild plants, mushrooms, honey. Production of feed for domesticated animals or for aquaculture. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Extent of agricultural land—potential land for food and feed production; Abundance of marine fish stocks ## ENCORE Name Used: Fibres and other materials Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Fibres and other materials from plants, algae, and animals are directly used or processed for a variety of purposes. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Food production, raw materials ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Crop Production Service Category: Agriculture/Nutrition Definition: The InVEST Crop Production models estimate crop yield and nutrient value for a fixed set of crops, using user-supplied landcover information. The models consider the impact of climate and optionally fertilizer rates to evaluate crop yield. The aim is to explore the economic and nutritional benefits of different cropping systems while also assessing their impact on ecosystem services. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Estimates of crop yield, comparison of economic returns for different cropping systems Metrics: Crop yield per hectare, nutritional information for 33 macro and micronutrients, quality control via observed results from the same region. The Percentile Model covers 175 crops worldwide, listing yields for the 25th, 50th, 75th, and 95th percentiles in each of the crop's climate bins. The Regression Model focuses on 10 staple crops and requires additional data on fertilizer application rates. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Food Provision Service Category: Provisioning Service Definition: The role of ecosystems in providing the conditions for cultivation of food and feed. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Crop Cover (%) as an indicator Fraction of cultivated land represented as crop cover. # Energy ## SEEA EA SEEA groups energy under Biomass provisioning services. We group Energy as a flow from Real Assets and thus have not separated out here. Please see the Biomass provisioning services section in Raw Materials. Note from SEEA CF: \_While the SEEA Central Framework provides guidance on the valuation of renewable and non-renewable natural resources and land within the System of National Accounts (SNA) asset boundary, it does not include guidance on valuation methods on these assets and related flows that go beyond values already included in the SNA.\_ ## CICES Name Used: Cultivated Aquatic Plants for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: the in-situ aquaculture of plants and algae for three primary purposes: nutritional consumption, material extraction, and energy production. Regardless of the end-use, these cultivated plants are quantified by type and amount, serving as metrics for their respective categories. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Cultivated Terrestrial Plants for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: the intentional growth of terrestrial plants, fungi, and algae for various applications. These include nutritional purposes, where crops are classified by amount and type such as cereals or soft fruits; material purposes, where fibers and other materials are categorized by amount, type, use, and media like land or freshwater; and energy production, quantified by the amount and type of biomass produced. These cultivated plants serve as essential resources, each measured by specific metrics to assess their respective contributions. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition
Name Used: Wild Plants (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Wild Plants (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Wild Animals (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Wild Animals (Terrestrial & Aquatic) for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Reared Animals For Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Reared Animals for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy refers to the practice of raising animals for various purposes, including food, materials, and energy production. When reared for nutrition, animals and their by-products are quantified by amount and type, such as beef or dairy. For material purposes, fibers and other materials obtained from these animals are measured by amount, type, use, and the media they are derived from, such as land or water. Animals reared for energy, including mechanical energy, are also categorized and quantified by amount, type, and source. These practices underscore the multi-faceted contributions that reared animals make to human society and various industries. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Reared Aquatic Animals for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Reared Aquatic Animals for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy refers to the cultivation of aquatic animals through in-situ aquaculture for various end-uses. When raised for nutritional purposes, these animals are quantified by amount and type. For material applications, excluding genetic materials, the same metrics of amount and type are used. Animals reared as an energy source are also categorized and measured by amount and type. This illustrates the multiple roles that aquacultured animals serve, from providing food and materials to acting as a source of energy. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Surface Water Used for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Surface Water Used for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy encompasses the various applications of surface water resources, including freshwater and coastal or marine waters. When used for drinking, the water is quantified by its amount, type, and source. For material uses that don't include drinking, metrics involve the amount and source of the water. In the context of energy, freshwater surface water and coastal or marine water are both accounted for, measured by their amount, type, and source. This highlights the essential role of surface water in meeting diverse human needs, from sustenance and industrial applications to energy generation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Ground water used for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Ground Water Used for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy refers to the utilization of subterranean water reserves for various applications. This includes ground water used for drinking, quantified by the amount, type, and source; ground water used for material purposes other than drinking, measured by the amount and source; and ground water utilized as an energy source, also quantified by the amount and source. These categories reflect the versatile roles that ground water plays in meeting diverse human needs, from hydration and material production to energy generation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Energy is not a category in TEEB / ESVD and appears to be part of the Raw Materials category. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Energy and Raw Materials Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Providing fuel, fiber, fertilizer, minerals, and energy Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: n/a ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Energy Service Category: Material NCP (Materials And Assistance) Definition: Production of biomass-based fuels, such as biofuel crops, animal waste, fuelwood, agricultural residue pellets, peat. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Extent of agricultural land—potential land for bioenergy production; Extent of forested land ## ENCORE Name Used: Animal-based energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Physical labor is provided by domesticated or commercial species, including oxen, horses, donkeys, goats, and elephants. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Reduction of damages, avoided costs, and avoided sediment pollution Metrics: ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Offshore Wind Energy Service Category: Renewable Energy Definition: The InVEST Offshore Wind Energy model measures the electricity generation potential of wind over ocean and large lake surfaces. It estimates expected wind power and harvested energy for a chosen region and calculates the levelized cost of energy and the net present value of constructing and operating a wind energy facility. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Net Present Value, Levelized Cost of Energy Metrics: Wind power potential, energy generation, offset carbon emissions, net present value, and levelized cost of energy, all given at the farm level. Spatial maps are used for detailed analysis, and users are allowed to select the number of turbines for the farm. Name Used: Reservoir Hydropower Production (Water Yield) Service Category: Renewable Energy/Water Management Definition: The InVEST Reservoir Hydropower Production model estimates the annual average quantity of water produced by a watershed and its economic value for reservoir hydropower production. It calculates the relative contribution of each land parcel to annual average water yield and hydropower production, valuing this in terms of energy production and calculating the net present value over the reservoir's lifetime. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Net Present Value of hydropower production over the life of the reservoir Metrics: Annual average water yield, energy production, net present value of hydropower production. Spatially-explicit outputs of relative water yields help identify areas contributing the most to hydropower value. The model also considers changes in landscape that affect water yield and subsequently hydropower production capacity. Name Used: Wave Energy Service Category: Renewable Energy Generation Definition: Measures and values the electricity generation potential from ocean waves. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Net present value (NPV) of constructing and operating a wave energy conversion (WEC) facility. Metrics: Expected wave power, harvested wave energy, NPV ## Swiss Re BES Index Energy is not listed as an ES category but does reference IPBES - NCP framework. Swiss Re does list energy production and mining in their biodiversity and ecosystem services threats classification which also includes oil and gas drilling, mining and quarrying, renewable energy.
# Water Security (supply & storage) ## SEEA EA Name Used: Water supply Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Water supply services reflect the combined ecosystem contributions of water flow regulation, water purification, and other ecosystem services to the supply of water of appropriate quality to users for various uses including household consumption. This is a final ecosystem service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. Name Used: Water flow regulation services Service Category: Regulating Definition: by sub-category See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. Name Used: Baseline Flow Maintenance Services Definition: Water regulation services are the ecosystem contributions to the regulation of river flows and groundwater and lake water tables. They are derived from the ability of ecosystems to absorb and store water, and gradually release water during dry seasons or periods through evapotranspiration and hence secure a regular flow of water. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate ecosystem service. Name Used: Peak Flow Mitigation Services Definition: Water regulation services are the ecosystem contributions to the regulation of river flows and groundwater and lake water tables. They are derived from the ability of ecosystems to absorb and store water, and hence mitigate the effects of flood and other extreme water-related events. Peak flow mitigation services will be supplied together with river flood mitigation services in providing the benefit of flood protection. This is a final ecosystem service. ## CICES Name Used: Surface Water Used for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Surface Water Used for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy encompasses the various applications of surface water resources, including freshwater and coastal or marine waters. When used for drinking, the water is quantified by its amount, type, and source. For material uses that don't include drinking, metrics involve the amount and source of the water. In the context of energy, freshwater surface water and coastal or marine water are both accounted for, measured by their amount, type, and source. This highlights the essential role of surface water in meeting diverse human needs, from sustenance and industrial applications to energy generation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Ground water used for Nutrition, Materials or Energy Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Ground Water Used for Nutrition, Materials, or Energy refers to the utilization of subterranean water reserves for various applications. This includes ground water used for drinking, quantified by the amount, type, and source; ground water used for material purposes other than drinking, measured by the amount and source; and ground water utilized as an energy source, also quantified by the amount and source. These categories reflect the versatile roles that ground water plays in meeting diverse human needs, from hydration and material production to energy generation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition
Name Used: Regulation of Baseline Flows & Extreme Events Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Regulation of Baseline Flows and Extreme Events refers to the ecosystem's role in controlling various environmental dynamics and reducing associated risks. This encompasses control of erosion rates, buffering and attenuation of mass movement, hydrological cycle and water flow regulation, as well as storm and fire protection—all of which are measured by metrics like risk reduction and the area protected. Additionally, the regulation extends to the management of mass, liquid, and gaseous flows, quantified by their respective types and amounts. Together, these functions contribute to the stability and resilience of ecosystems against both regular and extreme environmental events. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Water; Regulation of water flows Service Category: Provisioning; Regulating Definition: Water as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Drinking water, industrial water, and irrigation water (unnatural), and ‘other’ water. Regulation of water flows include drainage, River discharge, Natural irrigation, Water regulation (unspecified). Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 96 specific to water and 64 to regulation of water flows. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Water Supply; Water Storage Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Regulating the rate of water flow through an environment and ensuring adequate water availability for all water users; Providing long-term reserves of usable water via storage - in lakes, ponds, aquifers, and soil moisture Economic Value Calculated: Yes; No Valuation Methods: Avoided Cost, Meta-Analysis, Replacement Cost, Market Value Metrics: Forest: Water Supply was calculated as a function of mean annual precipitation (1981–2010), mean annual discharge, reported water runoff and evapotranspiration, all spatially explicit and derived using geographic information system and other spatial interpolation models. The value of water supply was based on an average cost of alternative water sources, including groundwater extraction, desalinization and surface water collection and treatment. Inland Wetlands: Water Supply utilized function transfer—a type of benefit transfer method—to construct a United States–specific value from two meta-analyses on the economic value of wetlands in Value ($/ac/yr) Riparian Water Supply: Zavaleta (2000) used multiple avoided cost calculations to arrive at an average value for the value of water supply provided by riparian areas.253 Utility market data was then used to monetize the amount of water stored in riparian areas, which, once released, would flow to a downstream dam where utility pumping infrastructure was located. Roberts and Leitch (1997) used the replacement cost and avoided cost methods to value the amount of water stored in wetland and lakeside riparian vegetation.254 The method incorporated the avoided costs of alternative water supply infrastructure, such as dams. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Regulation of freshwater quantity, location and timing Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Regulation, by ecosystems, of the quantity, location and timing of the flow of surface and groundwater used for drinking, irrigation, transport, hydropower, and as the support of non-material contributions. Regulation of flow to water-dependent natural habitats that in turn positively or negatively affect people downstream, including via flooding; wetlands including ponds, rivers, lakes, swamps. Modification of groundwater levels, which can ameliorate dryland salinization in unirrigated landscapes. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Ecosystem impact on air-surface-ground water partitioning ## ENCORE Name Used: Ground water Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Water stored underground in aquifers made of permeable rocks, soil, and sand. Originates from rainfall, snow melts, and water flow from natural freshwater resources. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Clean water Name Used: Surface water Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Surface water is provided through freshwater resources from collected precipitation and water flow from natural sources. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Clean water Name Used: Water flow maintenance Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: The hydrological cycle, also called water cycle or hydrologic cycle, is the system that enables circulation of water through the Earth’s atmosphere, land, and oceans. The hydrological cycle is responsible for the recharge of groundwater sources (i.e. aquifers) and the maintenance of surface water flows. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Clean water ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Reservoir Hydropower Production (Water Yield) Service Category: Renewable Energy/Water Management Definition: The InVEST Reservoir Hydropower Production model estimates the annual average quantity of water produced by a watershed and its economic value for reservoir hydropower production. It calculates the relative contribution of each land parcel to annual average water yield and hydropower production, valuing this in terms of energy production and calculating the net present value over the reservoir's lifetime. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Net Present Value of hydropower production over the life of the reservoir Metrics: Annual average water yield, energy production, net present value of hydropower production. Spatially-explicit outputs of relative water yields help identify areas contributing the most to hydropower value. The model also considers changes in landscape that affect water yield and subsequently hydropower production capacity. Name Used: Urban Stormwater Retention Service Category: Ecosystem Services, Urban Water Management Definition: Provides information on two ecosystem services related to urban stormwater management: runoff retention and groundwater recharge. It calculates the volume of stormwater retained annually and the associated water quality benefits. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Replacement cost of stormwater infrastructure Metrics: Annual stormwater retention volume, associated water quality benefits (i.e., avoided transport of nutrients or pollutants), potential groundwater recharge estimates, and the volume and mass of pollutants or nutrients in exported stormwater. Name Used: Seasonal Water Yield Service Category: Ecosystem Services, Watershed Management Definition: Estimates the amount of water produced by a watershed over the course of a year, providing primary outputs of quickflow, local recharge, and baseflow. Economic Value Calculated: No (Not specified in the provided content) Valuation Methods: N/A Metrics: Quickflow, local recharge, baseflow. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Water Security Service Category: Provisioning Service Definition: The role of terrestrial ecosystems in regulating water quantity. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Water Availability % based on Baseline Water Stress of WRI. Ratio of water withdrawals to available renewable surface and groundwater. # Soil ## SEEA EA Name Used: Soil Quality Regulation Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: Ecosystem contributions to the decomposition of organic and inorganic materials and to the fertility and characteristics of soils, often for input to biomass production. This is most commonly recorded as an intermediate service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. Name Used: Soil and Sediment Retention Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: by sub-category See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. Name Used: Soil Erosion Control Services Definition: The ecosystem contributions, particularly the stabilizing effects of vegetation, that reduce the loss of soil and sediment and support the use of the environment such as agricultural activity and water supply. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate service. Name Used: Landslide Mitigation Services Definition: The ecosystem contributions, particularly the stabilizing effects of vegetation, that mitigate or prevent potential damage to human health and safety and damaging effects to buildings and infrastructure that arise from the mass movement (wasting) of soil, rock, and snow. This is a final ecosystem service. ## CICES Name Used: Regulation of Soil Quality Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Regulation of Soil Quality encompasses two primary ecological functions: weathering processes that affect soil composition and decomposition and fixing processes that contribute to soil health. Both categories are measured by the amount or concentration of substances involved and their respective sources. These processes work in tandem to maintain or enhance soil quality, thereby ensuring its suitability for various ecological and agricultural functions. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Maintenance of soil fertility Service Category: Regulating Definition: Soil as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include maintenance of soil structure, deposition of nutrients, soil formation, nutrient cycling.. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 47 specific to soil. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Soil Formation; Soil Quality Service Category: Regulating Definition: Accumulating soils (e.g., via plant matter decomposition or sediment deposition in riparian/coastal systems) for agricultural and ecosystem integrity; Maintaining soil fertility and capacity to process waste inputs (bioremediation) Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: n/a {% hint style="info" %} FEMA mentions soil service in Water Filtration: Removing water pollutants via soil filtration and transformation by vegetation and microbial communities {% endhint %} ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Formation, protection and decontamination of soils and sediments Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Formation, protection against erosion or salinization, stabilization, structure improvement and decontamination, by ecosystems, of soils and sediments. These actions determine their suitability for human infrastructure and for plant growth, affecting both cultivated and non-cultivated plants of importance to humans. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Soil erosion rate, Soil organic carbon stocks ## ENCORE Name Used: Soil quality Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Soil quality is provided through weathering processes, which maintain bio-geochemical conditions of soils, including fertility and soil structure, and decomposition and fixing processes, which enable nitrogen fixing, nitrification, and mineralization of dead organic material. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Food production, water quality, and reduction of damages Name Used: Bio-remediation Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: A natural process whereby living organisms such as micro-organisms, plants, algae, and some animals degrade, reduce, and/or detoxify contaminants. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Clean air, clean water ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Carbon Storage and Sequestration Model Service Category: Carbon Storage and Sequestration Definition: Estimates the amount of carbon currently stored and potentially sequestered over time in a given landscape based on land use/land cover maps. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Market value or social cost of carbon, annual rate of change, and a discount rate. Metrics: Amount of carbon stored in four pools (aboveground living biomass, belowground living biomass, soil, dead organic matter), changes in carbon stocks over time. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Soil Fertility Service Category: Regulating Service Definition: The role of nature in improving soil biodiversity and health through enhancing Soil Organic Carbon (SOC). Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Soil Organic Carbon Stocks tn/ha as an indicator. Sum of the soil organic carbon stocks for the first 100cm of soil. ## Other We have noted the [NRCS Soils Classification](https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-06/Soil%20Taxonomy.pdf) # Medicinal & Genetic ## SEEA EA Name Used: Genetic Material Services Service Category: Provisioning Services Definition: The ecosystem contributions from all biota, including seed, spore, or gamete production, that are used by economic units for various purposes such as developing new animal and plant breeds, in gene synthesis, or in product development directly using genetic material. This is most commonly recorded as an intermediate service to biomass provisioning. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Genetic Material from Animals, Plants, Algae, Fungi, or Other Organisms Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Genetic Material from Animals, Plants, Algae, Fungi, or Other Organisms Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Medicinal resources; Genetic resources; Maintenance of genetic diversity Service Category: Provisioning; Provisioning; Habitat Definition: Medicinal resources as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include biochemicals, models, test-organisms, and bioprospecting. Genetic resources as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include plant genetic resources, animal genetic resources, genetic resources (unspecified). Maintenance of genetic diversity as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include biodiversity protection. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 52 specific to medicinal resources, 57 specific to genetic resources, and 61 for maintenance of genetic diversity. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Medicinal Resources (Genetic Resources / MA) Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Providing traditional medicines, pharmaceuticals, and assay organisms Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: n/a ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Medicinal, biochemical and genetic resources Service Category: Material NCP (Materials And Assistance) Definition: Production of materials derived from organisms used for medicinal, veterinary and pharmacological purposes. Production of genes and genetic information for plant and animal breeding and biotechnology. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Fraction of species locally known and used medicinally; Phylogenetic diversity ## ENCORE Name Used: Genetic materials Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Understood to be deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and all biota including plants, animals, and algae. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Food production and medicine ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Not classified in InVEST. ## Swiss Re BES Index Not listed as an ES category but does reference IPBES - NCP framework. # Climate Regulation ## SEEA EA Name Used: Global Climate Regulation Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: The ecosystem contributions to reducing concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere through the removal (sequestration) of carbon from the atmosphere and the retention (storage) of carbon in ecosystems. These services support the regulation of the chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans. This is a final ecosystem service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics.
Name Used: Local (Micro and Meso) Climate Regulation Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: The ecosystem contributions to the regulation of ambient atmospheric conditions, including micro and mesoscale climates, through the presence of vegetation that improves living conditions for people and supports economic production. Examples include the evaporative cooling provided by urban trees ('green space'), the role of urban water bodies ('blue space'), and the contribution of trees in providing shade for humans and livestock. This may be a final or intermediate service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. Name Used: Rainfall pattern regulation services (at sub- continental scale) Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: Rainfall pattern regulation services are the ecosystem contributions of vegetation, in particular forests, in maintaining rainfall patterns through evapotranspiration at the sub-continental scale. Forests and other vegetation recycle moisture back to the atmosphere where it is available for the generation of rainfall. Rainfall in interior parts of continents fully depends upon this recycling. This may be a final or intermediate service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Atmospheric Composition & Conditions Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Atmospheric Composition and Conditions refers to the role of living systems in regulating the chemical composition of the atmosphere as well as temperature and humidity. This includes the regulation of atmospheric chemicals, measured by the contribution of specific types of living systems to the amounts or concentrations of these chemicals. Similarly, the control of temperature and humidity, including processes like ventilation and transpiration, is also governed by living systems and is quantified by their contributions to specific climatic parameters. These functions highlight the integral role that ecosystems play in maintaining the stability and balance of atmospheric conditions, crucial for both environmental health and human well-being. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition
Name Used: Regulation of Baseline Flows & Extreme Events Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Regulation of Baseline Flows and Extreme Events refers to the ecosystem's role in controlling various environmental dynamics and reducing associated risks. This encompasses control of erosion rates, buffering and attenuation of mass movement, hydrological cycle and water flow regulation, as well as storm and fire protection—all of which are measured by metrics like risk reduction and the area protected. Additionally, the regulation extends to the management of mass, liquid, and gaseous flows, quantified by their respective types and amounts. Together, these functions contribute to the stability and resilience of ecosystems against both regular and extreme environmental events. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Climate regulation Service Category: Regulating Definition: Climate regulation as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include C-sequestration, MDS-production, climate regulation (unspecified), microclimate regulation, gas regulation. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 174 specific to climate regulation. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. Name Used: Water; Regulation of water flows Service Category: Provisioning; Regulating Definition: Water as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Drinking water, industrial water, and irrigation water (unnatural), and ‘other’ water. Regulation of water flows include drainage, River discharge, Natural irrigation, Water regulation (unspecified). Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 96 specific to water and 64 to regulation of water flows. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Climate Regulation Service Category: Regulating Definition: Supporting a stable climate at global and local levels through carbon sequestration and other processes Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Avoided Cost Metrics: Forests: For calculating the carbon sequestration metrics of forests, coastal wetlands, , an extensive database containing over 6,000 individual carbon values was consulted. From this, four key studies comprising 717 specific carbon sequestration values were selected to construct an average value estimate per acre per year. The valuation was then carried out using the social cost of carbon (SCC), which accounts for the societal impacts of each additional metric ton of carbon emissions, measured in CO2 equivalent (CO2e). The SCC rates are updated by the Interagency Working Group on the Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases and, for this study, the 2020 rate of $51 per metric ton CO2e was used, translating to $195.81 per metric ton of carbon in 2021 USD. Coastal Wetlands: Carbon sequestration in U.S. coastal wetlands was evaluated using a two-step approach. First, an aggregate database containing over 6,000 carbon values was tapped to estimate average carbon sequestration rates per acre per year, selecting five studies that collectively included 72 individual values. Next, the social cost of carbon (SCC) was applied to attach a dollar value to the sequestration rates. SCC measures the societal costs of each additional metric ton of carbon emissions (CO2e), covering aspects such as agricultural loss, health impacts, and increased disaster risk. It is regularly updated by the Interagency Working Group on the Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases, based on Executive Order 13990.53. For this study, the 2020 SCC rate of $51 per metric ton CO2e was used, equivalent to $195.81 per metric ton of carbon in 2021 USD. Inland Wetlands, Riparian, Urban Green Open Space, Rural Green Open Space used the same methodology above but with different studies. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Regulation of climate Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Climate regulation by ecosystems through positive or negative effects on emissions of greenhouse gases; effects on biophysical feedbacks from vegetation cover to atmosphere; processes involving biogenic volatile organic compounds and regulation of aerosols and aerosol precursors by terrestrial plants and phytoplankton. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Prevented emissions and uptake of greenhouse gases by ecosystems Name Used: Regulation of ocean acidification Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Regulation, by photosynthetic organisms, of atmospheric CO2 concentrations and so seawater pH, which affects associated calcification processes by many marine organisms important to humans. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Capacity to sequester carbon by marine and terrestrial environments
Name Used: Regulation of freshwater quantity, location and timing Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Regulation, by ecosystems, of the quantity, location and timing of the flow of surface and groundwater used for drinking, irrigation, transport, hydropower, and as the support of non-material contributions. Regulation of flow to water-dependent natural habitats that in turn positively or negatively affect people downstream, including via flooding; wetlands including ponds, rivers, lakes, swamps. Modification of groundwater levels, which can ameliorate dryland salinization in unirrigated landscapes. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Ecosystem impact on air-surface-ground water partitioning ## ENCORE Name Used: Climate regulation Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Provided by nature through the long-term storage of carbon dioxide in soils, vegetable biomass, and the oceans. At a regional level, climate is regulated by ocean currents and winds while, at local and micro-levels, vegetation can modify temperatures, humidity, and wind speeds. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Name Used: Dilution by atmosphere and ecosystems Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Water, both fresh and saline, and the atmosphere can dilute the gases, fluids, and solid waste produced by human activity. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Clean sanitation, clean air, clean water Metrics: ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Carbon Storage and Sequestration Service Category: Carbon Storage and Sequestration Definition: Estimates the amount of carbon currently stored and potentially sequestered over time in a given landscape based on land use/land cover maps. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Market value or social cost of carbon, annual rate of change, and a discount rate. Metrics: Amount of carbon stored in four pools (aboveground living biomass, below ground living biomass, soil, dead organic matter), changes in carbon stocks over time. Name Used: Coastal Blue Carbon Service Category: Coastal Blue Carbon Storage and Sequestration Definition: Estimates the amount and value of carbon stored and sequestered in coastal vegetation and wetland habitats, such as mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes, over time. The model can also account for disturbances due to climate change and human activities. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Monetary social value or market price for stored and sequestered carbon. Metrics: Distribution and abundance of coastal vegetation, habitat-specific carbon stock data, impact of land-cover disturbances on biomass and soil carbon pools, carbon accumulation rates, and estimates of the monetary social value or market price of carbon. Name Used: Urban Cooling Service Category: Urban Heat Mitigation Definition: Estimates the heat mitigation effects of vegetation in urban areas based on factors like shade, evapotranspiration, and albedo. The model calculates an index of heat mitigation and uses it to estimate temperature reduction due to vegetation. It also assesses the value of this service through energy consumption and work productivity. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Energy consumption and work productivity Metrics: Index of heat mitigation based on shade, evapotranspiration, albedo, and distance from cooling islands like parks; climate data, land use/land cover data, and optional A/C use data. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Air Quality & Local Climate Service Category: Regulating Service Definition: The capacity of vegetated areas to reduce air pollutant concentration and contribute to climate regulation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Annual Net Primary Production kg C/km2 as an indicator. Rate at which all plants in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy. # Air Quality ## SEEA EA Name Used: Air Filtration Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: The ecosystem contributions to the filtering of air-borne pollutants through the deposition, uptake, fixing, and storage of pollutants by ecosystem components, particularly plants, that mitigates the harmful effects of the pollutants. This is most commonly a final ecosystem service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Atmospheric Composition & Conditions Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Atmospheric Composition and Conditions refers to the role of living systems in regulating the chemical composition of the atmosphere as well as temperature and humidity. This includes the regulation of atmospheric chemicals, measured by the contribution of specific types of living systems to the amounts or concentrations of these chemicals. Similarly, the control of temperature and humidity, including processes like ventilation and transpiration, is also governed by living systems and is quantified by their contributions to specific climatic parameters. These functions highlight the integral role that ecosystems play in maintaining the stability and balance of atmospheric conditions, crucial for both environmental health and human well-being. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Mediation of Nuisances of Anthropogenic Origin Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Mediation of Nuisances of Anthropogenic Origin encompasses the natural mechanisms that mitigate nuisances caused by human activities. This includes smell reduction, noise attenuation, and visual screening, each regulated by different types of living systems such as specific plant or animal communities. These functions are measured by the type of living system involved in the mediation process. Additionally, the category includes abiotic structures or processes that also serve to mitigate nuisances, quantified by their types and amounts. Together, these biotic and abiotic elements work to alleviate the impact of human-generated nuisances on the environment and improve the quality of life. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Air quality regulation Service Category: Regulating Definition: Air quality regulation as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Capturing fine dust, Air quality regulation (unspecified), UVb-protection. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 454 specific to air quality regulation. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Air Quality Service Category: Regulating Definition: Providing clean, breathable air Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Avoided Cost Metrics: Forests: The effects of forests on air quality in various U.S. locations were assessed through multiple studies by Nowak et al. In a 2013 study, the impact of forests on fine particulate matter less than 2.5 microns was analyzed in 10 U.S. cities. This was monetized based on the avoided human mortality and morbidity costs, with values originally estimated in 2010 USD per square meter per year of tree cover, later converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Similarly, a 2006 study examined how forests contribute to the removal of five different pollutants—O3, PM10, NO2, SO2, and CO—in 55 cities. The value of these effects was quantified using monetized externality values that reflect societal costs of pollution, initially reported in 1994 USD and converted to 2021 figures. A 2014 study expanded on this to include both urban and rural forest impacts on air pollution removal across the conterminous U.S., also converting original 2010 USD figures to 2021 USD per acre per year. In both the 2013 and 2014 studies, dollar values for pollution reduction were sourced from the EPA, based on the agency's primary air quality standards. Urban Green Open Space: Gopalakrishnan et al.'s 2018 study and two local studies by the Trust for Public Land uniquely focus on the human health benefits derived from the pollution-removal capacity of vegetated areas. Utilizing the i-Tree Eco model and the EPA's BenMAP program, these studies explore the health impacts of various pollutants including ozone, nitrogen oxides, and particulates in several U.S. urban areas. An avoided cost approach is employed to quantify the value of these benefits, considering factors such as reduced respiratory illness, fewer emergency room visits, and lower hospital admission rates. The studies use the Leaf Area Index, percentage of land cover, and local air pollution data to assess the vegetation's impact on health. Economically, they follow a "cost-of-illness" method, factoring in expenses related to healthcare and loss of school days. Riparian: Riparian areas contribute to air quality by filtering pollutants such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone, among others. This value is calculated as an average of the benefits provided by forests and green open spaces. All methodologies in the cited studies employ an avoidance cost approach, factoring in the healthcare costs saved from reduced pollution-related illnesses. The absorption rates of pollutants are monetized based on market prices for alternative air purification methods. The benefits tend to be more significant in urban settings, and a more detailed breakdown comparing urban and rural areas could further refine the economic valuation of riparian zones for air quality. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Regulation of air quality Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Regulation by ecosystems, of CO2/O2 balance, O3, sulphur oxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, particulates, aerosols, allergens. Filtration, fixation, degradation or storage of pollutants that directly affect human health or infrastructure. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Retention and prevented emissions of air pollutants by ecosystems ## ENCORE Name Used: Filtration Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Carried out by a range of organisms including algae, animals, microorganisms, and vascular and non-vascular plants. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Clean air, clean water Name Used: Ventilation Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Ventilation provided by natural or planted vegetation is vital for good indoor air quality, and without it, there are long-term health implications for building occupants due to the build-up of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), airborne bacteria, and molds. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Clean air
Name Used: Dilution by atmosphere and ecosystems Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Water, both fresh and saline, and the atmosphere can dilute the gases, fluids, and solid waste produced by human activity. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Clean sanitation, clean air, clean water ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Not classified in InVEST. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Air Quality & Local Climate Service Category: Regulating Service Definition: The capacity of vegetated areas to reduce air pollutant concentration and contribute to climate regulation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Annual Net Primary Production kg C/km2 as an indicator. Rate at which all plants in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy. # Water Quality (filtration) ## SEEA EA Name Used: Water purification services (water quality regulation) Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: Retention and breakdown of nutrients and Retention and breakdown of other pollutants - Water purification services are the ecosystem contributions to the restoration and maintenance of the chemical condition of surface water and groundwater bodies through the breakdown or removal of nutrients and other pollutants by ecosystem components that mitigate the harmful effects of the pollutants on human use or health. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate ecosystem service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics.
Name Used: Solid waste remediation services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: Solid waste remediation services are the ecosystem contributions to the transformation of organic or inorganic substances, through the action of micro-organisms, algae, plants and animals that mitigates their harmful effects. This is may be recorded as a final or intermediate service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Mediation Of Wastes or Toxic Substances of Anthropogenic Origin by Living Processes Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Mediation of Wastes or Toxic Substances of Anthropogenic Origin by Living Processes encompasses the biological mechanisms that neutralize or manage human-generated waste and toxins. This includes bio-remediation, where micro-organisms, algae, plants, and animals are involved in breaking down waste, measured by the type of living system or waste involved; as well as filtration, sequestration, storage, and accumulation processes that effectively isolate or transform waste and toxins, quantified by the type of living system or the type of water or substance involved. These natural mechanisms serve as an ecological buffer against environmental degradation caused by human activities. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Water Conditions Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Water Conditions refers to the natural regulation of chemical conditions in both freshwater and saltwater environments by living processes. This includes the regulation of the chemical condition of freshwaters, quantified by the type of living system involved, such as specific plant or animal communities. Similarly, it covers the regulation of chemical conditions in salt waters, also measured by the type of living system active in those environments. These living systems play a crucial role in maintaining the chemical balance of water bodies, thereby contributing to overall aquatic health and ecosystem stability. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Waste treatment Service Category: Regulating Definition: Waste treatment as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include water purification, Soil detoxification, Abatement of noise, Waste treatment (unspecified). Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 74 specific to waste treatment. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Water Filtration Service Category: Regulating Definition: Removing water pollutants via soil filtration and transformation by vegetation and microbial communities Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Meta-Analysis, Replacement Cost, Avoided Cost Metrics: Forest: Taye et al.'s 2021 meta-analysis assessed the economic value of forest ecosystem services using a dataset of 261 studies, covering 624 individual values. Reported in 2017 USD per hectare per year, these values were converted to 2021 USD per acre per year for our analysis. We focused on the global mean value for "bioremediation" and "dilution, filtration, and sequestration" as outlined in Table 3 of the study, representing key contributions of forests to clean water Coastal and Inland Wetlands: function transfer method to tailor meta-analysis findings on wetlands' economic value to a U.S. context. Models from four key studies—Adusumilli (2015), Brander et al. (2006), Ghermandi et al. (2010), and Woodward & Wui (2001)—were adapted for this purpose. We selected Model C, featuring an R^2 of 0.582, as the foundation for our function transfer. Several variables were adjusted: those highlighting coastal wetlands and water quality were set to 1, average annual household income and U.S. GDP per capita were integrated where required, and 'publish' was set to 1 for Woodward & Wui’s model to indicate reliance on published data. Finally, all monetary figures were converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Riparian: Everard & Jevons (2010) examined the financial ramifications of water contamination from agriculture, particularly dairy farming, emphasizing the costs incurred by downstream communities to secure clean water. Zhongwei (2006) looked at how riparian buffers of different sizes (60 m, 90 m, 120 m) contribute to the filtration of nitrogen and phosphorus from upstream agricultural activities. The research used hydrological computer models like BASINS and HSPF along with GIS mapping for in-depth analysis. The findings from both studies offer valuable insights into water purification and associated costs. Shellfish Reefs: Studies on U.S. shellfish beds reveal their significant role in water filtration by consuming nitrogen and phosphorus-rich plankton and detritus, thereby aiding nutrient cycling in coastal habitats. These studies employed replacement cost methods to value the filtration services provided by shellfish beds, comparing the cost of similar services if provided by wastewater treatment plants. The findings were initially reported as total benefits for each study site and were later converted to per-acre values by dividing the overall benefits by the area covered by shellfish within the site. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Regulation of freshwater and coastal water quality Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Regulation, by ecosystems, of the chemical composition of freshwater, groundwater and coastal waters, including through filtration, dilution, storage, accumulation, degradation or transformation of organic and inorganic matter, sediments and biogenic elements (N, P, Si, etc.). It impacts the suitability of water for human consumption, agriculture, fishery, and other uses, and affects the viability of freshwater and coastal ecosystems. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Retention and transformation of nutrients and pollutants by ecosystems
Name Used: Regulation of ocean acidification Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Regulation, by photosynthetic organisms, of atmospheric CO2 concentrations and so seawater pH, which affects associated calcification processes by many marine organisms important to humans. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Capacity to sequester carbon by marine and terrestrial environments
Name Used: Formation, protection and decontamination of soils and sediments Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Formation, protection against erosion or salinization, stabilization, structure improvement and decontamination, by ecosystems, of soils and sediments. These actions determine their suitability for human infrastructure and for plant growth, affecting both cultivated and non-cultivated plants of importance to humans. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Soil erosion rate, Soil organic carbon stocks ## ENCORE Name Used: Water quality Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Water quality is provided by maintaining the chemical condition of freshwaters, including rivers, streams, lakes, and groundwater sources, and salt waters to ensure favorable living conditions for biota. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Clean water
Name Used: Dilution by atmosphere and ecosystems Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Water, both fresh and saline, and the atmosphere can dilute the gases, fluids, and solid waste produced by human activity. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Clean sanitation, clean air, clean water
Name Used: Filtration Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Carried out by a range of organisms including algae, animals, microorganisms, and vascular and non-vascular plants. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Clean air, clean water Name Used: Bio-remediation Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: A natural process whereby living organisms such as micro-organisms, plants, algae, and some animals degrade, reduce, and/or detoxify contaminants. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Clean air, clean water Name Used: Buffering and attenuation of mass flows Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Allows the transport and storage of sediment by rivers, lakes, and seas. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Reduction of damages, avoided costs, and avoided sediment pollution Metrics: ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Water Purification Service Category: Water Purification Definition: Maps nutrient sources from watersheds and their transport to streams, assessing nutrient retention by natural vegetation. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Avoided treatment costs, improved water security Metrics: Nutrient export at watershed/subwatershed outlet, areas of highest filtration, point and non-point nutrient sources Name Used: Sediment Retention Service Category: Ecosystem Services, Water Quality Definition: Estimates the capacity of a land parcel to retain sediment based on variables such as geomorphology, climate, vegetative coverage, and management practices. It focuses on overland sediment generation and its delivery to streams, aiming to guide improved land management practices. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Avoided mitigation costs, replacement costs, willingness to pay Metrics: Sediment load delivered to streams annually, amount of sediment eroded in the catchment, amount of sediment retained by vegetation and topographic features. Name Used: Urban Stormwater Retention Service Category: Ecosystem Services, Urban Water Management Definition: Provides information on two ecosystem services related to urban stormwater management: runoff retention and groundwater recharge. It calculates the volume of stormwater retained annually and the associated water quality benefits. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Replacement cost of stormwater infrastructure Metrics: Annual stormwater retention volume, associated water quality benefits (i.e., avoided transport of nutrients or pollutants), potential groundwater recharge estimates, and the volume and mass of pollutants or nutrients in exported stormwater. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Water Quality Service Category: Regulating Service Definition: The role of terrestrial ecosystems in regulating water quality by retaining nitrogen. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Proportion of Nitrogen Retained % as an indicator. Nitrogen retained due to habitats over the nitrogen load. # Hazard Risk Reduction ## SEEA EA Name Used: Flood Control Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: see Coastal Protection Services and River Flood Mitigation Services See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. Name Used: Coastal Protection Services Definition: The ecosystem contributions of linear elements in the seascape, for instance coral reefs, sand banks, dunes or mangrove ecosystems along the shore, in protecting the shore and thus mitigating the impacts of tidal surges or storms on local communities. This is a final ecosystem service.
Name Used: River Flood Mitigation Services Definition: The ecosystem contributions of riparian vegetation which provides structure and a physical barrier to high water levels and thus mitigates the impacts of floods on local communities. River flood mitigation services will be supplied together with peak flow mitigation services in providing the benefit of flood protection. This is a final ecosystem service.
Name Used: Storm Mitigation Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: The ecosystem contributions of vegetation including linear elements, in mitigating the impacts of wind, sand and other storms (other than water related events) on local communities. This is a final ecosystem service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. Name Used: Noise attenuation services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: Noise attenuation services are the ecosystem contributions to the reduction in the impact of noise on people that mitigates its harmful or stressful effects. This is most commonly a final ecosystem service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. Name Used: Solid waste remediation services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: Solid waste remediation services are the ecosystem contributions to the transformation of organic or inorganic substances, through the action of micro-organisms, algae, plants and animals that mitigates their harmful effects. This is may be recorded as a final or intermediate service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Regulation of Baseline Flows & Extreme Events Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Regulation of Baseline Flows and Extreme Events refers to the ecosystem's role in controlling various environmental dynamics and reducing associated risks. This encompasses control of erosion rates, buffering and attenuation of mass movement, hydrological cycle and water flow regulation, as well as storm and fire protection—all of which are measured by metrics like risk reduction and the area protected. Additionally, the regulation extends to the management of mass, liquid, and gaseous flows, quantified by their respective types and amounts. Together, these functions contribute to the stability and resilience of ecosystems against both regular and extreme environmental events. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Mediation of Nuisances of Anthropogenic Origin Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Mediation of Nuisances of Anthropogenic Origin encompasses the natural mechanisms that mitigate nuisances caused by human activities. This includes smell reduction, noise attenuation, and visual screening, each regulated by different types of living systems such as specific plant or animal communities. These functions are measured by the type of living system involved in the mediation process. Additionally, the category includes abiotic structures or processes that also serve to mitigate nuisances, quantified by their types and amounts. Together, these biotic and abiotic elements work to alleviate the impact of human-generated nuisances on the environment and improve the quality of life. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Mediation Of Wastes or Toxic Substances of Anthropogenic Origin by Living Processes Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Mediation of Wastes or Toxic Substances of Anthropogenic Origin by Living Processes encompasses the biological mechanisms that neutralize or manage human-generated waste and toxins. This includes bio-remediation, where micro-organisms, algae, plants, and animals are involved in breaking down waste, measured by the type of living system or waste involved; as well as filtration, sequestration, storage, and accumulation processes that effectively isolate or transform waste and toxins, quantified by the type of living system or the type of water or substance involved. These natural mechanisms serve as an ecological buffer against environmental degradation caused by human activities. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Moderation of extreme events Service Category: Regulating Definition: Moderation of extreme events as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Storm protection, Flood prevention, Fire Prevention, Prevention of extreme events (unspecified). Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 116 specific to moderation of extreme events. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Hazard Risk Reduction Service Category: Regulating Definition: Preventing and mitigating natural hazards such as floods, hurricanes, fires, and droughts Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Avoided Cost, Alternative Cost, Meta-Analysis Metrics: Forest: McPherson and colleagues conducted multiple studies to assess the benefits of urban trees and small forests in stormwater flood mitigation, covering locations like Modesto and other cities in California. The original findings were reported in yearly values per city and in varying years' USD. These were then standardized by dividing by the total acreage of tree cover and converted to 2021 USD/acre/year. Wilson (2008) also evaluated the flood hazard reduction benefits of forests at a landscape scale using CITYgreen software. The original findings were in 2005 Canadian dollars per hectare per year and were likewise converted to 2021 USD/acre/year. Coastal Wetland: Sun and Carson (2020) studied the economic impact of tropical storms on U.S. coastal areas, focusing on the role of wetlands in reducing storm hazard risks. The study covered 237 coastal counties and presented median values in 2016 USD/sq km/year, which were then converted and inflated to 2021 USD/acre/year. To derive a U.S.-specific valuation for wetlands, a function transfer method was applied, drawing from multiple meta-analyses including Adusumilli (2015), Brander et al. (2006), Ghermandi et al. (2010), and Woodward & Wui (2001). Specific variables were set to highlight the role of coastal wetlands and their contribution to flood or storm hazard risk reduction. Income per capita, wetland size, and GDP per capita were among the variables adapted to U.S. specific data. All these values were eventually converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Inland Wetlands: A function transfer method was used to tailor U.S.-specific wetland values based on meta-analyses by Adusumilli (2015), Brander et al. (2006), Ghermandi et al. (2010), and Woodward & Wui (2001). The focus was on freshwater or inland wetlands and their role in flood and storm hazard risk reduction. Variables like income per capita, wetland size, and GDP per capita were set to U.S. specific metrics. The "publish" variable for the Woodward and Wui (2001) study was set to 1, ensuring the results were based on published values. All the dependent variables, initially in various units and years, were standardized to 2021 USD per acre per year. Urban Green Open Space: The Trust for Public Land employed avoided cost methodology to assess the economic value of urban parks and open spaces in mitigating stormwater runoff. Using a model developed by the Western Research Station of the U.S. Forest Service, these studies leveraged geospatial land cover data and U.S. weather data on rainfall. The goal was to compare the water retention capacity of current land use versus that of a fully developed reference area. By correlating this information with water treatment data, the studies estimated cost-savings for city governments in terms of stormwater management. Riparian: Rein (1999) analyzed the role of riparian buffers along rivers as temporary flood storage areas, particularly focusing on the Pajaro River near Elkhorn Slough. Using economic data from flood events in 1995 and 1998, Rein calculated the avoided future flood costs that could be achieved through installing these buffers. Similarly, Kousky & Walls (2013) used Hazus flood modeling software to estimate the avoided flood damages due to the conservation of riparian lands. Watson et al. (2016) went further by mapping flood extents for 10 real-life flood events and computing the damages that upstream riparian areas could potentially mitigate. Coral Reefs: The study by Storlazzi et al. (2019) provided a comprehensive U.S.-wide estimate for the value of coral reefs in reducing storm hazard risks. The study was unique in its rigor, covering all U.S. areas and territories with associated coral reefs. The authors used high-resolution spatial and hydrodynamic modeling techniques similar to those employed by FEMA. Notably, the study considered both the value of at-risk infrastructure and the potential impacts to local economic activities, a factor often omitted in green infrastructure valuation. The methodology combined engineering, ecologic, geospatial, and economic modeling to quantify the coastal protection benefits of coral reefs across the U.S. and its territories. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Regulation of hazards and extreme events Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Regulation, by ecosystems, of the frequency, magnitude or impacts on people, of extreme events. This includes storms, floods, landslides, avalanches, forest fires, heatwaves, and disease outbreaks. Ecosystems play roles in reducing vulnerabilities, buffering impacts or facilitating recovery after an event. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Risk reduction by ecosystems, Extent of natural barriers ## ENCORE Name Used: Flood and storm protection Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Provided by the sheltering, buffering, and attenuating effects of natural and planted vegetation. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Reduction of damages, avoided costs, and avoided sediment pollution Metrics: Name Used: Mediation of sensory impacts Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Vegetation is the main (natural) barrier used to reduce noise and light pollution, limiting the impact it can have on human health and the environment. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Coastal Vulnerability Service Category: Erosion and Flooding Risk Mitigation Definition: The model uses geophysical and natural habitat features to estimate coastal exposure to erosion and flooding caused by severe weather. It ranks sites based on their relative risk and can be overlaid with population data to identify human vulnerability. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: N/A Metrics: Vulnerability index, summaries of human population density in proximity to the coastline, exposure index rank for coastline segments. Name Used: Flood Risk Mitigation Service Category: Flood Risk Mitigation Definition: This model focuses on the role of natural infrastructure in mitigating stormwater (or urban) flooding. It calculates runoff reduction per pixel compared to storm volume, as well as the potential economic damage within each watershed by overlaying flood extent potential and built infrastructure. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Potential economic damage calculated by overlaying flood extent potential and built infrastructure. Metrics: Runoff reduction per pixel, potential economic damage for each watershed. Name Used: Urban Cooling Service Category: Urban Heat Mitigation Definition: Estimates the heat mitigation effects of vegetation in urban areas based on factors like shade, evapotranspiration, and albedo. The model calculates an index of heat mitigation and uses it to estimate temperature reduction due to vegetation. It also assesses the value of this service through energy consumption and work productivity. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Energy consumption and work productivity Metrics: Index of heat mitigation based on shade, evapotranspiration, albedo, and distance from cooling islands like parks; climate data, land use/land cover data, and optional A/C use data. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Coastal Protection Service Category: Regulating Service Definition: The role of coastal habitats in mitigating the impacts of flooding and erosion. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Coastal Risk Reduction (%) as an indicator. Difference in coastal risk with and without the coastal habitats present. # Pollination ## SEEA EA Name Used: Pollination Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: Pollination services are the ecosystem contributions by wild pollinators to the fertilization of crops that maintains or increases the abundance and/or diversity of other species that economic units use or enjoy. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Lifecycle Maintenance, Habitat & Gene Pool Protection Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Lifecycle Maintenance, Habitat, and Gene Pool Protection refers to the natural processes essential for species propagation and survival. This includes pollination, quantified by the amount of pollen transferred and the type of pollinator involved; seed dispersal, measured by the amount of seeds and the dispersal agents such as animals or wind; and the maintenance of nursery populations and habitats, which also includes the protection of genetic diversity, assessed by the amount and source of individuals in these habitats. These functions are critical for the perpetuation of biodiversity and ecosystem health. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Pollination Service Category: Regulating Definition: Pollination as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Pollination of crops, Pollination of wild plants, and Pollination (unspecified). Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 89 specific to pollination. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Pollination Service Category: Supporting Definition: Pollinating wild and domestic plant species via wind, X insects, birds, or other animals Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Market Price Metrics: Urban and Rural Green Open Space: The study by Pimentel et al. (1997) highlighted the significant economic value of pollination in the United States. Pollinators, including a variety of bees and other insects, flourish in natural areas like grasslands and prairies. These ecosystems contribute to increased yields in croplands, and their conversion to agricultural land negatively impacts local pollination services. The study estimated the economic value of pollination at approximately $40 billion per year in the U.S. This figure includes the benefits of pollination not only for crop yields but also for the increased value of insect-pollinated legumes used in cattle feed. To arrive at this number, the study collected data across approximately 990 million acres of agricultural land, extending their analysis to include the benefits of pollination originating from open green spaces adjacent to these agricultural areas. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Pollination and dispersal of seeds and other propagules Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Facilitation by animals of movement of pollen among flowers, and dispersal of seeds, larvae or spores of organisms beneficial or harmful to humans. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Pollinator diversity, Extent of natural habitat in agricultural areas ## ENCORE Name Used: Pollination Service Category: Provisioning Definition: Pollination services are provided by three main mechanisms: animals, water, and wind. The majority of plants depend to some extent on animals that act as vectors, or pollinators, to perform the transfer of pollen. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Food production ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Crop Pollination (Pollinator Abundance) Service Category: Ecosystem Services, Agricultural Management Definition: Focuses on the service provided by wild pollinators, particularly bees, for crops. Estimates insect pollinator nest sites, floral resources, flight ranges, and can attribute economic value to agricultural production. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Index of the contribution of bees to agricultural production based on bee abundance and crop dependence on pollination. Optional inclusion of managed pollinators. Metrics: Pollinator nest sites, floral resources, flight ranges, pollinator abundance index, economic contribution to agricultural production. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Pollination Service Category: Regulating Service Definition: Represents the provision of adequate pollination of pollination-dependent crops by wild pollinators. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Proportion Pollinated % as an indicator The ratio of the pollinated production to the pollination-dependent production. # Erosion Control ## SEEA EA Name Used: see Soil Erosion Control Services, a sub-category of Soil and Sediment Retention Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: The ecosystem contributions, particularly the stabilizing effects of vegetation, that reduce the loss of soil and sediment and support the use of the environment such as agricultural activity and water supply. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Regulation of Baseline Flows & Extreme Events Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Regulation of Baseline Flows and Extreme Events refers to the ecosystem's role in controlling various environmental dynamics and reducing associated risks. This encompasses control of erosion rates, buffering and attenuation of mass movement, hydrological cycle and water flow regulation, as well as storm and fire protection—all of which are measured by metrics like risk reduction and the area protected. Additionally, the regulation extends to the management of mass, liquid, and gaseous flows, quantified by their respective types and amounts. Together, these functions contribute to the stability and resilience of ecosystems against both regular and extreme environmental events. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Erosion prevention Service Category: Regulating Definition: “erosion prevention” Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 67 specific to erosion prevention. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. Name Used: Moderation of extreme events Service Category: Regulating Definition: Moderation of extreme events as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Storm protection, Flood prevention, Fire Prevention, Prevention of extreme events (unspecified). Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 116 specific to moderation of extreme events. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Erosion Control Service Category: Regulating Definition: Retaining arable land, slope stability, and coastal integrity Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Meta-Analysis, Market Price, Avoided Cost, Replacement Cost Metrics: Forest: Taye et al. (2021) conducted a meta-analysis on forest ecosystem services, covering 624 values from 261 global studies. The "mass flow regulation" value was reported in 2017 USD/hectare/year and converted to 2021 USD/acre/year based on the global mean from the study's Table 3. Urban and Rural Green Open Space: Pimentel et al. (1995) used market prices to assess U.S. soil erosion costs, considering factors like land slope and vegetation. The study found that converting grasslands to cropland and other human activities exacerbated nutrient and water loss. It concluded that U.S. erosion costs exceed global averages. Riparian: The value is based on avoided costs to both farmers and society, including reduced road maintenance and dredging costs for shipping channels. Although localized, the study suggests that such dredging costs are relevant across major U.S. river basins due to their drainage to ports requiring significant dredging. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Formation, protection and decontamination of soils and sediments Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Formation, protection against erosion or salinization, stabilization, structure improvement and decontamination, by ecosystems, of soils and sediments. These actions determine their suitability for human infrastructure and for plant growth, affecting both cultivated and non-cultivated plants of importance to humans. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Soil erosion rate, Soil organic carbon stocks Name Used: Regulation of hazards and extreme events Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Regulation, by ecosystems, of the frequency, magnitude or impacts on people, of extreme events. This includes storms, floods, landslides, avalanches, forest fires, heatwaves, and disease outbreaks. Ecosystems play roles in reducing vulnerabilities, buffering impacts or facilitating recovery after an event. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Risk reduction by ecosystems, Extent of natural barriers ## ENCORE Name Used: Mass stabilisation and erosion control Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Delivered through vegetation cover protecting and stabilizing terrestrial, coastal, and marine ecosystems, coastal wetlands and dunes. Vegetation on slopes also prevents avalanches and landslides, and mangroves, sea grass, and macroalgae provide erosion protection of coasts and sediments. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Reduction of damages, avoided costs, and avoided sediment pollution Metrics: ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Sediment Retention Service Category: Ecosystem Services, Water Quality Definition: Estimates the capacity of a land parcel to retain sediment based on variables such as geomorphology, climate, vegetative coverage, and management practices. It focuses on overland sediment generation and its delivery to streams, aiming to guide improved land management practices. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Avoided mitigation costs, replacement costs, willingness to pay Metrics: Sediment load delivered to streams annually, amount of sediment eroded in the catchment, amount of sediment retained by vegetation and topographic features. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Erosion Control Service Category: Regulating Service Definition: The role of terrestrial ecosystems in reducing erosion risks. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Erosion Risk Reduction (-) as an indicator. Ability of different habitats to reduce erosion risk. # Biological Control ## SEEA EA Name Used: Biological Control Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: see sub-categories See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. Name Used: Pest Control Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: Biological control services are the ecosystem contributions to the reduction in the incidence of species that may prevent or reduce the effects of pests on biomass production processes or other economic and human activity. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate service.
Name Used: Disease Control Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: Disease control services are the ecosystem contributions to the reduction in the incidence of species that may prevent or reduce the effects of species on human health. This is most commonly a final ecosystem service. ## CICES Name Used: Pest & Disease Control Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Pest and Disease Control refers to the ecological functions that naturally regulate the incidence of pests, including invasive species, and diseases within an environment. Both aspects are quantified by metrics such as the reduction in incidence, risk, and the area protected, and are further categorized by the type of living system involved, like specific predator-prey relationships or microbial communities. These natural control mechanisms contribute to ecosystem health and stability, often mitigating the need for synthetic interventions. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Biological control Service Category: Regulating Definition: Biological control as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Seed dispersal, Pest control, Disease control, Biological Control (unspecified).. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 36 specific to biological control. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Biological Control Service Category: Regulating Definition: Providing pest, weed, and disease control Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Avoided Cost Metrics: Riparian: Rein (1999) employed the avoided cost method to show that riparian buffers help farmers by reducing the need for herbicides against invasive weeds and benefit communities by minimizing mosquito breeding grounds through erosion prevention. The study suggests using an average of these values for national application, noting that this is a conservative estimate as it doesn't account for other potential pests. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Regulation of detrimental organisms and biological processes Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Regulation, by ecosystems, of the populations of species that are pathogens, pests or invasive alien species and that affect humans or the organisms on which humans depend, directly or indirectly. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Population density of detrimental organisms, Ecosystem resilience ## ENCORE Name Used: Pest control Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Provided through direct introduction and maintenance of populations of the predators of pests or invasive species. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Ecosystem integrity Name Used: Disease control Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Ecosystems play important roles in the regulation of diseases for human populations as well as for wild and domesticated flora and fauna. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Human health ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Not classified in InVEST. ## Swiss Re BES Index Not listed as an ES category but does reference IPBES - NCP framework. # Habitat ## SEEA EA Name Used: Nursery Population and Habitat Maintenance Services Service Category: Regulating and maintenance services Definition: Nursery population and habitat maintenance services are the ecosystem contributions necessary for sustaining populations of species that economic units ultimately use or enjoy either through the maintenance of habitats (e.g., for nurseries or migration) or the protection of natural gene pools. This service is an intermediate service and may input to a number of different final ecosystem services including biomass provision and recreation-related services. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Lifecycle Maintenance, Habitat & Gene Pool Protection Service Category: Regulation and Maintenance Definition: Lifecycle Maintenance, Habitat, and Gene Pool Protection refers to the natural processes essential for species propagation and survival. This includes pollination, quantified by the amount of pollen transferred and the type of pollinator involved; seed dispersal, measured by the amount of seeds and the dispersal agents such as animals or wind; and the maintenance of nursery populations and habitats, which also includes the protection of genetic diversity, assessed by the amount and source of individuals in these habitats. These functions are critical for the perpetuation of biodiversity and ecosystem health. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Maintenance of species’ life cycles (incl. nursery service) Service Category: Habitat Definition: Habitat as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Nursery service, Refugia for migratory and resident species. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 38 specific to Maintenance of species’ life cycles (incl. nursery service). See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Habitat Service Category: Supporting Definition: Providing shelter, promoting growth of species, and maintaining biological diversity Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Meta-Analysis, Contingent valuation, Choice experiment, Productivity Value, Production Function Metrics: Coastal Wetland: We used a function transfer method to create a U.S.-specific economic value for wetlands. We relied on multiple meta-analyses, including one with an R^2 of 0.753 by Adusumilli (2015) and another with an R^2 of 0.582 by Woodward and Wui (2001). Model variables were set to emphasize coastal wetlands and habitat provisioning, and adjusted for average household income, wetland size, and GDP per capita. The results were converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Separately, Johnston et al. (2002) assessed the economic value of nursery and habitat services in the Peconic Estuary System. Hazen and Sawyer (2008) found that both residents and visitors were willing to pay a one-time tax to protect the Indian River Lagoon in Florida. Inland Wetlands: We applied a function transfer method to derive a U.S.-specific value for wetlands, based on multiple meta-analyses. Adusumilli (2015) had an adjusted R^2 of 0.753, while Woodward and Wui (2001) had an R^2 of 0.582. Model variables focused on freshwater or inland wetlands and habitat provisioning. Adjustments were made for average household income, wetland size, and GDP per capita in the U.S., and results were converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Urban and Rural Green Open Space: We used a function transfer method to calculate a U.S.-specific value for green open spaces based on Bockarjova et al. (2020), which had an adjusted R^2 of 0.699. Model variables were set to average "park" and "small urban green" types, and “peri-urban greenspace” for Rural, with "biodiversity and habitat" emphasized. Adjustments were made for current U.S. GDP per capita and average population density. The results, initially in 2016 USD per hectare per year, were converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Riparian: Johnston et al. (2002) calculated the annual value of existing and restored wetlands and riparian areas, considering both food web productivity and habitat values. Berrens et al. (2000) estimated nonuse value for instream flows, highlighting the protection of biodiversity and riparian zones. Their study indicated significant nonmarket benefits in preserving these areas, especially for endangered fish species. Coral Reefs: Brander and van Beukering (2013) performed a meta-analysis on the value of U.S. coral reefs. A function transfer method was used to generate a national estimate. The model had 69 observations and an adjusted R^2 of 0.44. Variables included average U.S. GDP per capita, regional coral cover in hectares, and setting the "nonuse" ecosystem service variable to 1. The value was originally in 2007 USD per hectare per year and was converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Habitat creation and maintenance Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: The formation and continued production, by ecosystems or organisms within them, of ecological conditions necessary or favorable for living beings of direct or indirect importance to humans. E.g. growing sites for plants, nesting, feeding, and mating sites for animals, resting and overwintering areas for migratory mammals, birds and butterflies, roosting places for agricultural pests and disease vectors, nurseries for juvenile stages of fish, habitat creation at different soil depths by invertebrates. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Extent of suitable habitat, Biodiversity intactness ## ENCORE Name Used: Maintain nursery habitats Service Category: Regulation & Maintenance Definition: Habitats that significantly contribute to the reproduction of individuals from a particular species. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Metrics: Food provision ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Habitat and Species Risk Assessment Service Category: Habitat and Species Conservation, Ecosystem Services Definition: Evaluates risks to coastal, marine, and terrestrial habitats and species based on exposure to human activities and the consequences of that exposure for ecosystem services. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Identifies relative risk to habitat quality and function, and species sustainability. Metrics: Ecosystem risk map, risk maps for individual habitats or species, risk plots, summary tables of risk by subregion. Name Used: Habitat Quality Service Category: Biodiversity Conservation, Ecosystem Services Definition: Estimates the extent and state of degradation of habitat and vegetation types across a landscape, based on habitat quality and rarity as proxies for biodiversity. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: Provides relative assessments of habitat quality, degradation, and rarity but does not monetize biodiversity. Metrics: Habitat quality maps, habitat rarity maps, relative extent and degradation of different types of habitats, and changes over time. ## Swiss Re BES Index Name Used: Habitat Intactness Service Category: Regulating Service Definition: Represents the average proportion of natural biodiversity remaining in local ecosystems, and its capacity to offer essential ecosystem services for human well-being. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: (Terrestrial) Biodiversity Intactness Index % as an indicator. The index models the average abundance of originally present species relative to their abundance in an intact ecosystem, considering factors like land use, land use intensity, human population density, and proximity to the nearest road. # Recreation & Tourism ## SEEA EA Name Used: Recreation-Related Services Service Category: Cultural Services Definition: Recreation-related services are the ecosystem contributions, in particular through the biophysical characteristics and qualities of ecosystems, that enable people to use and enjoy the environment through direct, in-situ, physical and experiential interactions with the environment. This includes services to both locals and non-locals (i.e., visitors, including tourists). Recreation-related services may also be supplied to those undertaking recreational fishing and hunting. This is a final ecosystem service. Note: recreation is also mentioned in the Nursery population and habitat maintenance services and Visual amenity services classes. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Physical & Experiential Interactions with Natural Environment Service Category: Cultural Definition: Physical and Experiential Interactions with Natural Environment refer to the various ways living and non-living elements of nature facilitate human activities focused on health, recuperation, or enjoyment. This includes characteristics of living systems that enable active or immersive interactions, as well as those that enable passive or observational interactions, each measured by the type of living system or environmental setting involved. Additionally, natural abiotic features that allow for both active and passive physical and experiential interactions are included, quantified by their types and amounts. These elements collectively enrich human well-being by providing opportunities for both physical engagement and mental restoration. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Opportunities for recreation and tourism Service Category: Cultural Definition: Opportunities for recreation and tourism as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Recreation, Tourism, Ecotourism, Hunting / fishing. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 850 specific to Opportunities for recreation and tourism. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Recreation/Tourism Service Category: Information Definition: Experiencing the natural world and enjoying outdoor activities Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Travel Cost, Meta-Analysis, Market Price, Hedonic Price; Contingent Valuation; Replacement Cost; Choice Experiment Metrics: Forest: Rosenberger et al. (2017) analyzed the consumer surplus value of U.S. recreation using travel cost studies. The study used the U.S. Forest Service's National Visitor Use Monitoring Survey to find the annual number and length of recreational trips to National Forest lands. The total annual trips were then multiplied by the average trip length and the dollar per trip consumer surplus, then divided by the total acreage of USFS lands to get a dollar-per-acre value. Coastal Wetlands: Johnston et al. (2002) and Hazen and Sawyer (2008) evaluated the value of outdoor recreation activities in different U.S. geographies using travel cost and survey methods. The former focused on the Peconic Estuary System, noting that bird and wildlife watching, and recreational fishing were the most valued. The latter found that visitors to Florida's Indian River Lagoon spent more time in activities like fin fishing and power boating. Various meta-analyses were used to perform function transfers to construct U.S.-specific values on the economic value of wetlands. Adusumilli's model had an adjusted R^2 of 0.753, Brander et al. had 0.45, Ghermandi et al. had 0.44, and Woodward and Wui's chosen model had an R^2 of 0.582. Model variables were adjusted according to a set of guidelines, such as denoting types of wetlands, describing recreational activities, and factoring in economic indicators like income and GDP per capita. The results were converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Inland Wetland: A function transfer method was applied to construct a U.S.-specific value for the economic value of wetlands, drawing from several meta-analyses. Model C, with an R^2 of 0.582, was selected for the function transfer. The model variables were set as follows: 1) freshwater or inland wetlands variables were set to 1, others to 0; 2) variables related to recreational activities were set to 1; 3) income per capita variables, if present, were set to the U.S. average household income and converted as needed; 4) wetland size was set to the average size of U.S. inland freshwater wetlands; 5) GDP per capita variables were converted to the current U.S. GDP per capita; 6) for the Woodward and Wui study, "publish" was set to 1 to reflect published values; 7) remaining variables were set to their mean. The dependent variables, given in various dollar years and units, were converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Urban Green Open Space: To improve the robustness of estimates for the recreation value of urban green open spaces, multiple methodologies were employed. First, U.S. values were used to estimate the meta-regression function presented in the comprehensive global contingent valuation literature review by Bockarjova et al. (2020). Secondly, Hanauer & Reid (2017) used an enhanced travel-cost method combined with detailed surveys and precise mapping techniques to assess the recreational value of urban open space. This multi-method approach aims to offer a more reliable and comprehensive understanding of the value of such spaces. Rural Green Open Space: To estimate the monetary value of ecosystem services, particularly the recreation value of rural green open spaces, a mixed-method approach incorporating both stated and revealed preference methods is utilized. The first step involves using U.S. specific data to estimate the meta-regression function as provided by Bockarjova et al. (2020). This function itself is grounded in a comprehensive global review of the contingent valuation literature, a form of stated preference method. This combination of diverse methods aims to produce a more reliable and comprehensive valuation of rural green open spaces. Riparian: In studies examining various U.S. locations, the economic value of riparian habitats was highlighted. Rein (1999) noted that controlling erosion and nutrient deposition in Elkhorn Slough enhanced ecotourism like kayaking and birding. Colby & Smith-Incer (2005) found that maintaining riparian habitats in a California birding area was crucial for sustaining visitor numbers and the local economy. Weber & Berrens (2006) quantified the value of desert riparian recreation in Arizona's Aravaipa Canyon, emphasizing its role as a critical bird habitat. Across these studies, the conservation of riparian areas was shown to have direct economic benefits through sustained or increased recreational opportunities. Beaches and Dunes: In ecosystem service valuation, beach recreation has been rigorously studied. Various studies used a median value from seventeen different valuations to represent the U.S. context. The findings indicate that beach users value larger beach sizes but differ in how much they value this benefit based on their activities like fishing, boating, or swimming. People generally prefer wider beaches and are averse to armoring strategies like seawalls. Complementary services like safety measures, amenities, and water quality also significantly influence beach value and attendance. The studies used different metrics to report values, but Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were employed to regularize these into comparable units. Shellfish Reefs: Studies on recreational angling over oyster reefs aim to quantify the willingness to pay either per household or per person. Oyster reefs serve as essential habitats for a variety of species, enhancing their recreational value. To calculate per-acre values, the $/household or $/person estimates were multiplied by the corresponding number of units, and the result was then divided by the study area. All figures were adjusted to 2021 USD. Coral Reefs: Brander and van Beukering (2013) conducted a meta-analysis on the value of U.S. coral reefs and derived a generalized national estimate using a reduced model with an adjusted R^2 of 0.44. Key model variables included average GDP per capita in the U.S., regional average hectares of coral cover, and a focus on "all recreation activities." These were converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Meanwhile, Van Beukering et al. (2011) focused on the U.S. Virgin Islands, using local economic data and tourist exit surveys. They applied the travel cost method to gauge consumer surplus from recreational tourism, and divided these annual values by the area of local coral reefs. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Physical and psychological experiences Service Category: Non-material NCP (Non-Material) Definition: Provision, by landscapes, seascapes, habitats or organisms, of opportunities for physically and psychologically beneficial activities, healing, relaxation, recreation, leisure, tourism and aesthetic enjoyment based on the close contact with nature. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Area of natural and traditional landscapes and seascapes Name Used: Regulation of freshwater quantity, location and timing Service Category: Regulating NCP (Regulation Of Environmental Processes) Definition: Regulation, by ecosystems, of the quantity, location and timing of the flow of surface and groundwater used for drinking, irrigation, transport, hydropower, and as the support of non-material contributions. Regulation of flow to water-dependent natural habitats that in turn positively or negatively affect people downstream, including via flooding; wetlands including ponds, rivers, lakes, swamps. Modification of groundwater levels, which can ameliorate dryland salinization in unirrigated landscapes. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Ecosystem impact on air-surface-ground water partitioning ## ENCORE Not classified in ENCORE as it is considered a Cultural Service. ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Scenic Quality Service Category: Visual and Scenic Quality Definition: Assesses and values the visual quality of landscapes based on sited or planned features. The model produces viewshed maps and calculates the value of impacted visibility. It also allows for an evaluation of tradeoffs between nearshore and offshore developments and their visual impacts. Economic Value Calculated: Partially, focuses more on qualitative valuation but can be adapted for more detailed economic valuation. Valuation Methods: Number of "viewer days" per year, monetary value of change in scenic quality using valuation functions from peer-reviewed literature. Metrics: Viewshed maps, topography and bathymetry, locations of offshore facilities, and locations of viewers like population centers or parks. Inputs can also include studies exploring the economic magnitude of visual disamenities. Name Used: Recreation Service Category: Recreation and Tourism Definition: Quantifies the value of natural environments by predicting person-days of recreation based on natural habitats and features. It helps answer questions about relative visitation rates across landscapes, features influencing these rates, and how rates might change under different scenarios. Economic Value Calculated: Yes, it predicts how future changes to natural features will alter visitation rates, impacting local and even national economies. Valuation Methods: Simple linear regression to estimate the contribution of each attribute to visitation rate, geotagged photographs as proxies for actual visitation. Metrics: Outputs maps showing current and future patterns of recreational use based on various scenarios. Uses photo-user-day estimates to predict future changes in visitation rates. ## Swiss Re BES Index Not listed as an ES category but does reference IPBES - NCP framework. # Research & Education ## SEEA EA Name Used: Education, Scientific and Research Services Service Category: Cultural Services Definition: Education, scientific and research services are the ecosystem contributions, in particular through the biophysical characteristics and qualities of ecosystems, that enable people to use the environment through intellectual interactions with the environment. This is a final ecosystem service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Intellectual & Representative Interactions with Natural Environment Service Category: Cultural Definition: Intellectual and Representative Interactions with Natural Environment refer to the varied ways in which the natural world serves as a subject or platform for intellectual pursuits, cultural expression, and aesthetic experiences. This includes characteristics of living systems that facilitate scientific investigation or the generation of traditional ecological knowledge, as well as those that enable education and training. Both are quantified by the type of living system or environmental setting involved. Additionally, characteristics resonant in terms of culture, heritage, or aesthetics are also included, measured by the same metrics. Natural abiotic features that enable intellectual interactions are quantified by their types and amounts. Collectively, these elements illustrate how the natural environment is not just a resource for material use but also a rich source for intellectual and cultural enrichment. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Information for cognitive development Service Category: Cultural Definition: Information for cognitive development as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Science / Research, Education, Cognitive (unspecified). Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 41 specific to Information for cognitive development. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Research and Education Service Category: Information Definition: Using natural systems for education and scientific research Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Meta-Analysis Metrics: Coral Reefs: The study by Brander and van Beukering (2013) used a function transfer method to create a generalized national estimate of coral reef value in the U.S. The model had 69 observations and an adjusted R^2 of 0.44. Variables like average U.S. GDP per capita and regional coral cover were considered. Specifically, the model focused on "research" as the primary ecosystem service variable. The value was initially in 2007 USD per hectare per year but was updated to 2021 USD per acre per year for relevance. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Learning and inspiration Service Category: Non-material NCP (Non-Material) Definition: Provision, by landscapes, seascapes, habitats or organisms, of opportunities for the development of the capabilities that allow humans to prosper through education, acquisition of knowledge and development of skills for well-being, information, and inspiration for art and technological design, including biomimicry. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Number of people in close proximity to nature; Diversity of life from which to learn ## ENCORE Not classified in ENCORE as it is considered a Cultural Service. ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Not classified in InVEST. ## Swiss Re BES Index Not listed as an ES category but does reference IPBES - NCP framework. # Aesthetic ## SEEA EA Name Used: Visual Amenity Services Service Category: Cultural Services Definition: Visual amenity services are the ecosystem contributions to local living conditions, in particular through the biophysical characteristics and qualities of ecosystems that provide sensory benefits, especially visual. This service combines with other ecosystem services, including recreation-related services and noise attenuation services, to underpin amenity values. This is a final ecosystem service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Physical & Experiential Interactions with Natural Environment Service Category: Cultural Definition: Physical and Experiential Interactions with Natural Environment refer to the various ways living and non-living elements of nature facilitate human activities focused on health, recuperation, or enjoyment. This includes characteristics of living systems that enable active or immersive interactions, as well as those that enable passive or observational interactions, each measured by the type of living system or environmental setting involved. Additionally, natural abiotic features that allow for both active and passive physical and experiential interactions are included, quantified by their types and amounts. These elements collectively enrich human well-being by providing opportunities for both physical engagement and mental restoration. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Aesthetic information; Ornamental Resources Service Category: Cultural; Provisioning Definition: Aesthetic information as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include attractive landscapes. Ornamental Resources includes Decorative Plants, Fashion, Decorations / Handicrafts, Pets and captive animals. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 97 specific to Aesthetic information and 18 for Ornamental Resources. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Aesthetic Value Service Category: Information Definition: Enjoying and appreciating the scenery, sounds, and smells of nature Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Revealed Preference, Hedonic Pricing, Meta-Analysis, Contingent Valuation Metrics: Forest: Kousky & Walls (2013) evaluated the aesthetic benefits of the Meramac River greenway in St. Louis through a hedonic model that tied property values to proximity to the greenway. The original 2012 USD/year values were normalized to 2021 USD/acre/year. Similarly, McPherson et al. (2005) assessed aesthetic benefits of street and park trees in five U.S. cities. A hedonic price study was adapted through a biophysical model, and values were presented as 2005 USD net present value per city. These were then converted to 2021 USD/acre/year, focusing only on data from three cities due to limitations on canopy cover information. Coastal and Inland Wetlands: Ghermandi et al. (2010) performed a global meta-analysis on the value of wetlands, which was localized to the U.S. through a function transfer. The reduced model from the study, with 416 observations and an adjusted R^2 of 0.44, was used. Variables in the model were configured to align with U.S. conditions: 1) Non-coastal wetland variables were set to zero while estuarine and marine wetland variables were averaged (\*\*and the opposite for Inland\*\*); 2) The "amenity and aesthetics" variable was set to 1, with other ecosystem service variables set to zero; 3) U.S. GDP per capita was adjusted to match the model's unit requirements; 4) Average size of U.S. coastal wetlands was used for wetland size; 5) Remaining variables were set to their mean values. The dependent variable, originally in 2003 USD per hectare per year, was converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Urban and Rural Green Open Space: Bockarjova et al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate the value of green open spaces, resulting in a U.S.-specific valuation through a function transfer from their Model 2, which had an adjusted R^2 of 0.699. Variables were configured to fit U.S. conditions: 1) for urban “Park" and "small urban green" and for rural “peri-urban greenspace” variables were averaged, other types set to zero; 2) "Aesthetics" set to 1, other ecosystem service variables set to zero; 3) Current U.S. GDP per capita was adjusted for the model; 4) U.S. average population density was converted to model-specific units; 5) All other variables were averaged. The dependent variable, initially in 2016 USD per hectare per year, was converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Lutzenhiser & Netusil (2001) segmented the general "park" category into specific types, and the average of urban and natural area parks was used for FEMA BCA valuation. The Trust for Public Land (2017) found that parks in Los Angeles increase nearby home values by 5%. Riparian: Qiu et al. (2006) used a hedonic pricing method to assess the added value of residential properties near riparian areas. This was validated using a contingent valuation survey to address biases in the econometric models. Berman & Armagost (2013) focused on the value increase of homes near freshwater resources in the Matanuska-Susitna Borough, using sales data from 2009 to 2010. They found that riparian zones positively influenced property values. Similarly, Kousky & Walls (2014) conducted a hedonic analysis using sales data from 2008 to 2012 for households near the Meramec River in Missouri, confirming that proximity to the riparian area had a positive impact on property values. Coral Reefs: Brander and van Beukering (2013) utilized a function transfer to estimate the national value of coral reefs in the U.S. based on a meta-analysis with an adjusted R^2 of 0.44. Key model variables included average U.S. GDP per capita and the average area of coral cover in the U.S., and focused on the "amenity" ecosystem service. The findings were converted to 2021 USD per acre per year. Separately, Van Beukering et al. (2011) employed a hedonic price method to examine the impact of coral reef proximity on housing prices in the U.S. Virgin Islands. They identified a positive impact, quantifying it as an equivalent of $37 million annually. Beaches and Dunes: Landry et al. (2003) and Gopalakrishnan et al. (2011) both employed hedonic models to evaluate the aesthetic value of beaches and their management policies in Georgia and North Carolina, respectively. Landry et al. found preferences for wider beaches and aversions to armoring strategies and shoreline retreat. Gopalakrishnan et al. discovered that beach width significantly influenced property values, even more than previously thought, underscoring the importance of such features in the context of climate change and rising population densities in coastal regions. Both studies initially reported values in linear units or total value. These were later regularized to approximate areas using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for a more standardized comparison. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Physical and psychological experiences Service Category: Non-material NCP (Non-Material) Definition: Provision, by landscapes, seascapes, habitats or organisms, of opportunities for physically and psychologically beneficial activities, healing, relaxation, recreation, leisure, tourism and aesthetic enjoyment based on the close contact with nature. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Area of natural and traditional landscapes and seascapes ## ENCORE Not classified in ENCORE as it is considered a Cultural Service. ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Name Used: Scenic Quality Service Category: Visual and Scenic Quality Definition: Assesses and values the visual quality of landscapes based on sited or planned features. The model produces viewshed maps and calculates the value of impacted visibility. It also allows for an evaluation of tradeoffs between nearshore and offshore developments and their visual impacts. Economic Value Calculated: Partially, focuses more on qualitative valuation but can be adapted for more detailed economic valuation. Valuation Methods: Number of "viewer days" per year, monetary value of change in scenic quality using valuation functions from peer-reviewed literature. Metrics: Viewshed maps, topography and bathymetry, locations of offshore facilities, and locations of viewers like population centers or parks. Inputs can also include studies exploring the economic magnitude of visual disamenities. ## Swiss Re BES Index Not listed as an ES category but does reference IPBES - NCP framework. # Cultural & Spiritual ## SEEA EA Name Used: Spiritual, Artistic and Symbolic Services Service Category: Cultural Services Definition: Spiritual, artistic and symbolic services are the ecosystem contributions, in particular through the biophysical characteristics and qualities of ecosystems, that are recognized by people for their cultural, historical, aesthetic, sacred, or religious significance. These services may underpin people’s cultural identity and may inspire people to express themselves through various artistic media. This is a final ecosystem service. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Spiritual, Symbolic & Other Interactions with Natural Environment Service Category: Cultural Definition: Spiritual, Symbolic, and Other Interactions with Natural Environment covers the diverse ways in which humans engage with the natural world for non-materialistic benefits. This includes elements of living systems that hold symbolic, sacred, or religious meanings, each quantified by the type of living system or environmental setting involved. It also extends to elements used for entertainment or representation. Additionally, the category encompasses natural, abiotic features of the environment that facilitate such interactions, measured by their types and amounts. Together, these aspects underscore the intangible yet significant value that the natural environment holds for human well-being and cultural richness. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition Name Used: Intellectual & Representative Interactions with Natural Environment Service Category: Cultural Definition: Intellectual and Representative Interactions with Natural Environment refer to the varied ways in which the natural world serves as a subject or platform for intellectual pursuits, cultural expression, and aesthetic experiences. This includes characteristics of living systems that facilitate scientific investigation or the generation of traditional ecological knowledge, as well as those that enable education and training. Both are quantified by the type of living system or environmental setting involved. Additionally, characteristics resonant in terms of culture, heritage, or aesthetics are also included, measured by the same metrics. Natural abiotic features that enable intellectual interactions are quantified by their types and amounts. Collectively, these elements illustrate how the natural environment is not just a resource for material use but also a rich source for intellectual and cultural enrichment. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Spiritual Experience; Inspiration For Culture, Art & Design; Ornamental Resources. Service Category: Cultural (Ornamental in Provisioning) Definition: Spiritual Experience: Spiritual / Religious use; Inspiration For Culture, Art & Design: Artistic inspiration, Cultural use, Inspiration (unspecified). Ornamental Resources: Decorative Plants, Fashion, Decorations / Handicrafts, Pets and captive animals. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 8, 106, and 18 to the three categories respectively. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Cultural Value Service Category: Information Definition: Providing opportunities for communities to use lands with spiritual, religious and historic importance Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: n/a ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Supporting identities Service Category: Non-material NCP (Non-Material) Definition: Landscapes, seascapes, habitats or organisms being the basis for religious, spiritual, and social-cohesion experiences. This includes provisioning of opportunities by nature for people to develop a sense of place, belonging, rootedness or connectedness, narratives, rituals, and the source of satisfaction derived from knowing certain landscapes or species exist. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Stability of land use and land cover Name Used: Physical and psychological experiences Service Category: Non-material NCP (Non-Material) Definition: Provision, by landscapes, seascapes, habitats or organisms, of opportunities for physically and psychologically beneficial activities, healing, relaxation, recreation, leisure, tourism and aesthetic enjoyment based on the close contact with nature. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Area of natural and traditional landscapes and seascapes ## ENCORE Not classified in ENCORE as it is considered a Cultural Service. ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Not classified in InVEST. ## Swiss Re BES Index Not listed as an ES category but does reference IPBES - NCP framework. # Existence ## SEEA EA Name Used: Ecosystem and Species Appreciation Service Category: Flows related to non-use values Definition: Ecosystem and species appreciation concerns the well-being that people derive from the existence and preservation of the environment for current and future generations, irrespective of any direct or indirect use. This is most commonly associated with non-use values. See Valuation Methods Appendix for Economic Value, Valuation Methods, and Metrics. ## CICES Name Used: Other Characteristics That Have a Non-Use Value Service Category: Cultural Definition: Other Biotic or Abiotic Characteristics that Have a Non-Use Value refers to the inherent worth of natural elements, irrespective of their utility for human activities. This includes characteristics or features of living systems with existence value, meaning they are valued simply for their presence, and those with bequest value, implying they are valued for their potential significance to future generations. Both are quantified by the type of living system or environmental setting. The category also includes natural, abiotic features that hold either existence or bequest values, measured by their types and amounts. These non-use values emphasize the intrinsic importance of preserving and respecting the natural environment, beyond its immediate practical applications. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: included in definition ## ESVD 2020 Name Used: Existence and bequest ‘values’ Service Category: Cultural Definition: Existence and bequest ‘values’ as categorized by TEEB in ESVD include Existence value and Bequest value. Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: The ESVD 2020 report offers a total of 4,042 value estimates, with 97 specific to Existence and bequest ‘values’. See the Valuation Methods Appendix. Metrics: $/ha/yr; ESVD is working on other qualitative and quantitative metrics. ## FEMA ESV 2022 Name Used: Existence Value Service Category: Information Definition: Well-being gained by the knowledge that an environmental resource exists, even without on-site use of that resource Economic Value Calculated: Yes Valuation Methods: Replacement Cost, Meta-Analysis Metrics: Nowak et al. (2002) approached the valuation of trees through the lens of their existence value, estimating this value based on replacement costs in eight different cities. Using field data and the valuation methods outlined by the Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers, they assessed trees as structural assets to determine compensatory values for entire tree populations. The values were initially estimated in terms of 2001 USD per square meter over the life span of a tree. These were later converted to a per-acre basis and divided by the average life span of trees to arrive at annual values. Finally, these annualized values were adjusted to 2021 USD per acre per year for standardized comparison. ## IPBES NCP Name Used: Maintenance of options Service Category: Non-material NCP (Non-Material) Definition: Capacity of ecosystems, habitats, species or genotypes to keep options open in order to support a good quality of life. This includes benefits associated with the continued existence of a variety of biological entities, potential future benefits from yet unknown discoveries, and anticipated benefits from ongoing biological evolution. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Species’ survival probability; Phylogenetic diversity Name Used: Physical and psychological experiences Service Category: Non-material NCP (Non-Material) Definition: Provision, by landscapes, seascapes, habitats or organisms, of opportunities for physically and psychologically beneficial activities, healing, relaxation, recreation, leisure, tourism and aesthetic enjoyment based on the close contact with nature. Economic Value Calculated: No Valuation Methods: n/a Metrics: Area of natural and traditional landscapes and seascapes ## ENCORE Not classified in ENCORE as it is considered a Cultural Service. ## TNFD Environmental Assets & Ecosystem Services Uses SEEA EA ## InVEST Not classified in InVEST. ## Swiss Re BES Index Not listed as an ES category but does reference IPBES - NCP framework. # Real Asset Classification & Real Property Considerations {% hint style="info" %} The BASIN [Core Benefits of Natural Capital](/core-benefits/natures-core-benefits) and [RealValue](/realvalue/why-put-a-value-on-nature) were built based on the process and supporting materials found in this Appendix. {% endhint %} Real Assets represent a broad spectrum of tangible resources that are foundational to economic activity. These assets possess both intrinsic value, simply due to their existence, and economic value due to their physical utility to produce goods and services. Classified primarily as Real Estate, Infrastructure, Commodities, and Natural Resources, these assets serve as the backbone of the global economy. By combining insights from institutional investors, economic classifications, and legal frameworks, Real Asset classes and types serve as a tool for natural capital investment and ecosystem restoration and conservation initiatives. ## Primary Classifications of Real Assets: ### Real Estate Land and commercial properties including apartments, offices, warehouses, malls, etc. It involves various real property rights, particularly the “bundle of rights”, for its valuation and income generation. ### Infrastructure Assets and networks used to transport, store and distribute goods, energy, people, and information, such as toll roads, pipelines, airports, and cellphone towers. These are often regulated by long-term contracts or user fees under specific property rights including public private partnerships. ### Commodities Basic goods such as oil, natural gas, precious metals, gold, corn, and soybeans. These often hold long-term value and may involve mining or harvesting rights. ### Natural Resources Includes energy and the extraction of oil & gas, timber, agriculture, mining as commodities. Rights to access and use these resources are essential for their valuation. ## Economists' & other Classification ### Durable & nondurable real assets Economists often distinguish between durable and nondurable real assets. Durable assets are those employed in wealth production but not consumed in the process. Financial assets, such as stocks, debt, or derivatives, represent claims to the income and value derived from real assets by legal rights. ### RWA: Real World Assets In the context of crypto and blockchain, RWA's signify the tokenization and integration of tangible, physical assets into the digital DeFi (Decentralized Finance) ecosystems. This process allows these assets to be managed, traded, and leveraged on blockchain platforms, marrying traditional financial assets with the blockchain's efficiency, transparency, and accessibility. Examples include tokenized real estate enabling fractional ownership, commodities like metals and agricultural products made easily tradable without physical handling, and blockchain-based funding or management of infrastructure and natural resources projects. RWAs aim to broaden blockchain utility, bringing liquidity, innovation, and inclusivity to diverse assets. ## Real Property Law & the Bundle of Rights Depending on jurisdiction and type, real assets are subject to real property law and associated rights, including what's commonly referred to as the "bundle of rights." The bundle of rights concept outlines various privileges, entitlements, and legal capacities related to real estate ownership. This "bundle" comprises: * Right to Possess: Ownership and the authority to occupy the property. * Right to Use and Enjoy: Utilizing the property for personal or economic benefits such as leasing. * Right to Control and Manage: Determining how the property is used or managed, including the right to income derived from it. * Right to Dispose or Transmissibility\*\*: The power to sell, lease, or otherwise transfer the property, including bequeathal after death. * Right to Exclude: Preventing others from entering the property or prohibiting specific uses. These rights are often subject to limitations like local laws, HOAs, or specific agreements such as deed restrictions and conservation easements. ## Additional Real Property Rights While the bundle of rights covers a broad spectrum of legal entitlements, it is not exhaustive. Other specific types of rights related to natural resources, such as water rights, mineral rights, and air rights, also play significant roles in real asset classifications: * **Air Rights**: These are often categorized as "development rights," allowing the owner of a parcel of land to control, occupy, or use the vertical space above the property. These rights can be sold or leased independently of the land itself. They are particularly relevant in urban settings where vertical development is common. * **Water Rights**: These are generally "use rights" that permit the owner or leaseholder to use water from a specific source, be it a river, stream, or underground aquifer, for specified purposes such as irrigation, industrial processes, or consumption. These rights can be particularly complex, as they can vary by jurisdiction and may be subject to local, state, or federal regulations. * **Mineral Rights**: These are typically "exploitation or extraction rights," granting the owner or lessee the exclusive right to mine, extract, sell, or lease minerals that exist beneath the surface of the property. These rights can be sold or leased separately from the property itself. Each of these types of rights can be legally distinct and can be sold, leased, or transferred independently of the other rights associated with the property. They are subject to regulation and may have different characteristics depending on the jurisdiction in which the property is located. ## Emerging Rights In the realm of nature-based solutions, natural capital, and conservation, an evolving set of rights is increasingly being leveraged to address climate change and protect biodiversity. These rights extend beyond traditional property and resource rights to facilitate restoration, carbon sequestration, and aesthetic preservation. Key types include: * **Carbon Rights**: These pertain to the ownership and control over the carbon dioxide storage and sequestration capabilities of a property. Carbon rights enable landowners to generate and sell carbon credits, which in turn incentivize CO2-reducing activities like reforestation. * **Natural Asset Rights**: Distinct from natural resource rights, which are often focused on extraction, Natural Asset Rights pertain to the restoration and conservation of ecosystems. These rights facilitate the creation and trading of biodiversity credits and contribute to habitat restoration initiatives. * **View Rights**: Also known as viewsheds or view corridors, these rights are designed to protect the visual integrity and scenic beauty of a landscape. Often established through easements or zoning laws, view rights can impact property values and contribute to regional aesthetic and cultural preservation. Both Carbon and Natural Asset Rights are instrumental in the development of emerging certification programs such as carbon and biodiversity credits. These novel rights serve to monetize environmental services, thereby making conservation and restoration activities more financially viable and investable. ## Usufruct and Leasing The modern concept of leasing has roots in the ancient legal principle of “usufruct”. Usufruct is a legal concept that originates from Roman law, which allows one individual to use and derive income or benefit (“fruit”) from someone else's property without altering the property itself. The property can be land, a building, or even resources like minerals, water, and timber. Usufruct essentially allows a person to enjoy the "fruits" of a property, both natural (like crops) and civil (like rental income), without harming or diminishing the property. This notion has evolved over time to give rise to various forms of leasing and tenancy arrangements in contemporary law. In modern leasing agreements, the lessee gains the right to use an asset for a specified period in return for making regular payments to the lessor. The underlying asset could be real property, such as a building or land, or personal property, like a car or equipment. While the lessor maintains the ownership of the asset, the lessee gains the right to use it, much like in usufruct. Both concepts are fundamentally grounded in the principle of temporary possession and utilization of assets, where one party benefits from an asset that legally belongs to someone else. ### Leases Leasing is a contractual arrangement allowing one party (the lessee) to use another party's (the lessor's) property for a specified time and specific use, typically in exchange for a periodic payment. Types of leases include: * **Sub-Leasing**: An arrangement where the original lessee sublets the property to a third party but still maintains a lease relationship with the original lessor. The sub-lessee pays rent to the lessee, who in turn continues to pay rent to the lessor. * **Master Lease Agreement**: a pre-established contractual framework that outlines the terms and conditions between a lessor (property owner) and lessee (tenant). Designed to be applicable to future leasing transactions, it simplifies the process for leasing multiple properties or assets and allows for the streamlined sub-leasing of a single property to various sub-tenants. In this arrangement, the lessor's primary point of contact is the main lessee, reducing the administrative burden as the lessor does not have to engage directly with the sub-tenants. This setup creates operational efficiencies for both the lessor and the primary lessee. * **Ground Lease**: A lease of the land only, often for long-term periods. The lessee may construct buildings or make other improvements to the land during the lease period. At the end of the lease term, all improvements generally revert to the landowner unless otherwise specified. * **Leasehold**: A form of property tenure where a person holds rights to a property by virtue of a lease agreement. Unlike freehold or fee simple, leasehold properties are 'owned' for a fixed term but not in perpetuity. Long term leasehold arrangements are common in commercial real estate. ## Conclusion All types of real assets depend on real property law and real property rights to certain extents. The bundle of rights that is commonly known as real estate is a tool for understanding the rights and limitations associated with these types of real assets. In the realms of natural capital, ecological assets, biodiversity credits, and payments for ecosystem services, the application of real property law is essential for achieving favorable outcomes. Though there is a significant need for, and ongoing efforts towards, real property law and land use reform in various regions, its astute utilization serves as a potent instrument for both immediate and long-term benefits. # Value Types & Valuation Methods {% hint style="info" %} BASIN's [RealValue of Natural Capital](/realvalue/why-put-a-value-on-nature) was built based on the process and supporting materials found in this Appendix. {% endhint %} To ascertain the "RealValue" of Natural Capital, our investigation delves into various types of value and the valuation methods that have been adopted across different cultures and economies globally. We've considered the historical evolution of these value types, their current applications, and their potential utility in ecosystem restoration and conservation initiatives. The concept of "value" is deeply embedded across multiple disciplines such as economics, philosophy, and social sciences, each offering different lenses through which to view worth or importance. In economics, the transition from labor theories to marginalist theory highlights the shifting understanding of value, from an objective measure to one that is more subjective and determined by individual preferences. Philosophical perspectives on value have been shaped by moral and ethical frameworks that assess the intrinsic qualities of ideas or actions. Sociocultural perspectives add another layer of complexity, often hinging on community or societal norms. Even in art and finance, value takes on multiple dimensions, be it aesthetic, emotional, or monetary. Within the scope of real assets, natural capital, and ecosystem services, the notion of value gains even more facets. Modern interpretations now include environmental and social governance (ESG) metrics. Emerging markets like carbon credits and biodiversity credits, as well as the concept of "regenerative finance," continue to redefine what constitutes "value." Regenerative finance aims to align capital allocation with sustainable practices that not only maintain but also improve natural and social systems. This appendix serves as an overview and foundation for understanding how these concepts interact with the sectors of real assets, natural capital, and ecosystem services. Our goal is to shed light on how different valuation methodologies can be applied or adapted to promote ecosystem restoration and conservation, aligning financial incentives with sustainable practices. # Types of Value In an exhaustive survey across diverse domains—from economics and business to art, luxury goods, philosophy, social customs, real estate, investment, finance, and insurance—we identified **over 300 types of value**. The comprehensive list is available in the accompanying RealValue workbook, "[Types of Value](https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vQwj56Qg699KpORHt_jm3YA43PAvEbwJuETykHpRhxM7YQ0ErbGIKcPZ0bc0a6R3mQlLx4rDGNTPCSy/pubhtml?gid=41126094\&single=true)" sheet. Given our focus on optimizing the holistic use and valuation of real assets, we've concentrated on the following frameworks: * Real asset valuation * Real estate appraisal * Business valuation * Ecosystem services valuation Central to our assessment are the practices common among institutional investors in real assets, the global commercial and investment real estate markets, as well as emerging systems in environmental economic accounting and ecosystem services valuation, including natural asset valuation and biodiversity credits. For our specific context, we frame value through three key concepts: cost, price, and value. These may overlap or diverge depending on the user's perspective. While value is most frequently expressed in quantitative terms like dollars, it also manifests in various qualitative forms and is commonly classified as instrumental value, intrinsic value, and relational value. ### Cost, Price, & Value Generally: * **Cost** refers to the actual expense incurred to build or acquire something and is closely related to price. * **Price** is essentially the market value of an asset, representing the most probable selling price in a competitive, open market. * **Value** can span from human-centered market value (**instrumental value**) to the invaluable or infinite (**intrinsic value**), as well as **relational value**, which describes an asset's worth in relation to other entities, be they living or non-living, across both space and time. Depending on the valuation method, user perspective, and ultimate goal of the valuation, other specific types of value are inherent in the broader categories of cost, price, and value. These include but are not limited to: * use and non-use value * market and non-market value * total economic value (TEV) * replacement cost * insurable value * investment value * net asset value (NAV). ### Two Primary Types of Value In our quest for the "RealValue" of Natural Capital, we recognize nature's intrinsic value as priceless. However, we also acknowledge the need to express this value in a common language that everyone understands, dollars, to avoid further degrading the biodiversity that comprises our biosphere. Two types of value are . Our analysis reveals two primary types of value that can easily be expressed in dollars and are particularly relevant to real assets and ecosystem services: anthropocentric value and public goods value. * **Anthropocentric Value** encompass widely recognized forms of value, including a property's market value and the income it generates. Anthropocentric Value is also referred to as financial value. * **Public Goods Value**, historically considered positive externalities, refer to the common benefits nature provides at no charge. Ecosystem services serve as the most appropriate classification for these values. "Public Goods" are generally those from which society at large benefits and which may not be privately owned or are hard to exclude people from enjoying. These have both intrinsic and instrumental values that often extend beyond the boundaries of a "property". Public Goods Value is also referred to as economic value. The following "Valuation Methods" section elaborates on how these values are quantified, focusing on real assets and ecosystem services. --- [Next Page](/llms-full.txt/1)